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the sci-wiki/effects/Inflammation

Inflammation

Every compound in the sci-wiki that affects inflammation; the ones you can source are floated to the front, then the reference-only entries. Tap any for the full entry, mechanism, and outlets.

93 sourced · 168 reference

←inflammation261/261filter this drawer by compound name

Astaxanthin

Astaxanthin is a reddish keto-carotenoid of the xanthophyll subgroup, produced by microalgae such as Haematococcus pluvialis and concentrated up the food chain in krill, shrimp, salmon and flamingos, which it colours pink to red. Structurally it is unusual: one molecule spans the full width of a cell membrane, its polar end groups anchored at both surfaces while the chain crosses the lipid interior. It is a potent lipid-soluble antioxidant in the direct sense, but its more durable action is transcriptional; it activates Nrf2, the transcription factor that switches on the cell's own antioxidant enzymes, which is why it is classed as an Nrf2 activator rather than only a scavenger. It is sold as an aquaculture feed pigment and a human supplement, and is studied for skin, ocular, cardiovascular, metabolic and neuroprotective effects.

Neuroprotection

Emoxypine

Emoxypine, best known by its succinate salt Mexidol, is a Russian antioxidant and antihypoxant used widely across the former Soviet states for stroke, cerebrovascular disease, and stress-related conditions [1][2]. It combines free-radical scavenging with membrane-stabilizing and mitochondrial-energy support, and in randomized clinical work it improved recovery after ischemic stroke [1]. For those interested in antioxidant neuroprotection, emoxypine is a long-established and clinically deployed compound with a distinctive dual antioxidant and metabolic profile.

EPObis

EPObis is a synthetic dendrimeric peptide designed from the binding Site 1 sequence of human erythropoietin, guided by the crystal structure of the erythropoietin-receptor complex. It binds the erythropoietin receptor and reproduces the cytokine's tissue-protective signaling; in cultured neurons it promotes neurite outgrowth and survival in a receptor-dependent manner. Unlike erythropoietin itself, EPObis is non-erythropoietic, so it activates protective pathways without stimulating red blood cell production, and after systemic administration it crosses the blood-brain barrier into the cerebrospinal fluid. In rodent studies it reduces tumor necrosis factor release from activated macrophages and microglia, delays clinical signs in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, and enhances working memory, marking it as an experimental neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory research peptide.

Glutathione

Glutathione is the body's main intracellular antioxidant, a tripeptide that neutralizes free radicals, supplies phase-II liver detoxification, and protects cells and mitochondria from oxidative wear. Whether swallowing it raises the amount in the body is the unsettled question at the center of this compound: a single dose does nothing measurable, while months of daily dosing appear to raise body stores modestly and reversibly. Oral use is well tolerated and produces a small, temporary lightening of sun-exposed skin in controlled trials. Intravenous glutathione sold for skin whitening is a different matter and has drawn regulatory warnings.

Pterostilbene

Pterostilbene is a naturally occurring stilbenoid closely related to resveratrol, from which it differs by carrying two methoxy groups in place of hydroxyl groups. It is found chiefly in blueberries, grapes, and the heartwood of certain trees, where it serves as a defensive phytoalexin. The methoxy substitution makes it substantially more lipophilic, metabolically stable, and blood-brain-barrier permeable than resveratrol; in Alzheimer's-model mice it improved cognition and reduced neuroinflammation at dietary doses that were ineffective for resveratrol, apparently acting through PPAR-alpha rather than the sirtuins. It has been studied in humans in combination with nicotinamide riboside to raise NAD+ levels, and is sold as a dietary supplement rather than an approved medicine.

Resveratrol

Resveratrol is a stilbenoid polyphenol produced by several plants as a defensive compound, or phytoalexin, in response to injury or infection. It occurs in the skins of grapes, in red wine, in peanuts, and in berries, and is extracted commercially from Japanese knotweed for use in supplements. It became widely known through research linking it to sirtuin enzymes and the so-called French paradox; in animal studies, activation of the SIRT1 and AMPK pathways induced mitochondrial biogenesis, increased running endurance, and protected against diet-induced metabolic disease. Its relevance in people remains uncertain, as oral bioavailability is very low and at least one trial found that it blunted the cardiovascular benefits of exercise training in older men.

Tropisetron

Tropisetron is a prescription anti-nausea drug that blocks the serotonin 5-HT3 receptor, and it is used to stop the vomiting caused by chemotherapy or by surgery; it has been sold for that purpose since 1992 in Europe, Japan, Australia and much of Asia, but it was never approved in the United States. What sets it apart from the other drugs in its class is that it also binds tightly to a brain receptor called the alpha-7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, which is why researchers have tested it for fibromyalgia pain, for thinking problems in schizophrenia, and in animal models of Alzheimer's and Huntington's disease. The anti-nausea use is solidly established; every other use rests on small short trials, mostly fewer than 45 people and under two weeks long, or on animal work, and no regulator anywhere has approved it for any of them. Anyone reading the older literature should also know that a large slice of the post-surgical anti-nausea evidence base was fabricated and later retracted, so individual old trials in that area carry very little weight on their own.

Cortagen

Cortagen is a synthetic brain-directed tetrapeptide (Ala-Glu-Asp-Pro) from the Khavinson family of peptide bioregulators, designed to support the structure and repair of nervous tissue [1]. In animal studies it accelerated the regeneration of injured peripheral nerve, raising nerve fiber growth rate and conduction velocity, and it selectively switched on gene expression in target tissues [1][2]. For anyone building a peptide-based longevity or neuro-recovery routine, Cortagen offers a focused, well-defined tool aimed squarely at the nervous system.

GHK-Cu

GHK-Cu is the famous copper peptide that earns its cult following, a naturally occurring tripeptide that signals skin to rebuild collagen and remodel itself toward a younger profile. It drives visible firming, faster wound healing, and healthier hair while delivering copper for antioxidant defenses, and it does so gently and with excellent tolerability. For a single, time-tested anti-aging peptide that simply makes skin look better, GHK-Cu remains the classic and still-reigning pick.

BPC-157/KPV/GHK-Cu Transdermal Serum

The BPC-157/KPV/GHK-Cu Transdermal Serum unites three of the most respected regenerative peptides into a single topical formula built for skin, soft tissue, and recovery support. BPC-157 drives angiogenesis and tissue repair, the melanocortin fragment KPV delivers potent anti-inflammatory action, and the copper tripeptide GHK-Cu remodels collagen and rejuvenates the dermal matrix. Together they form a compelling, multi-pathway serum for anyone seeking accelerated healing and visibly healthier skin.

GHK-Cu + Methylene Blue Tallow Balm

GHK-Cu + Methylene Blue Tallow Balm is a thoughtfully built topical that stacks three skin-loving actives in a single rub-on jar rather than a needle. The copper peptide GHK-Cu signals collagen and elastin renewal, low-dose methylene blue delivers standout antioxidant and mild antimicrobial support, and a nutrient-rich beef tallow base deeply hydrates while carrying the actives in. For anyone who wants repair, firmness, and antioxidant defense in one gentle, easy-to-use balm, this blend is a genuinely appealing pick.

GLOW

GLOW is a smartly built recovery blend that combines three of the best-known repair peptides, GHK-Cu, BPC-157, and TB-500, in a single vial. The logic is elegant; each covers a different slice of the healing process, so together they blanket far more ground than any one peptide could, from collagen and skin quality to tendon repair, blood-vessel growth, and cell migration. For all-around tissue support and recovery, GLOW is one of the most popular and well-reasoned peptide stacks around.

KLOW

KLOW is a premium four-peptide recovery blend that unites the celebrated GHK-Cu, BPC-157, and TB-500 trio with the anti-inflammatory tripeptide KPV, addressing skin, gut, and connective-tissue repair alongside inflammation in one formulation. Each component contributes a distinct and complementary mechanism: GHK-Cu drives collagen and skin remodeling, BPC-157 supports tendon, ligament, and gut-lining repair, TB-500 promotes cell migration and new blood-vessel growth, and KPV calms the inflammatory signaling that slows healing. For anyone seeking a comprehensive, research-grounded approach to tissue recovery, KLOW is among the most complete blends available.

Apigenin

Apigenin is a naturally occurring flavone, a subclass of flavonoid plant pigment, found in many fruits, vegetables, and herbs, with especially high levels in chamomile, parsley, and celery. It is a yellow crystalline compound studied for antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and mild calming effects, the last linked to its interaction with receptors in the brain. Apigenin is consumed as part of a normal diet and is also sold as a dietary supplement.

Benfotiamine

Benfotiamine is a synthetic, fat-soluble derivative of thiamine (vitamin B1), created to be absorbed more efficiently than ordinary water-soluble thiamine. Once in the body it is converted to thiamine and raises tissue levels of the active cofactor, which boosts the enzyme transketolase and helps steer excess glucose away from the biochemical pathways that damage tissues in diabetes. It is used, chiefly in Europe, for diabetic nerve pain and is sold elsewhere as a dietary supplement.

Boron

Boron is a metalloid (atomic number 5) that occurs naturally as borate minerals and boric acid and is regarded in humans as a beneficial trace element rather than a formally essential nutrient. Controlled depletion and supplementation studies indicate that modest intakes, on the order of 3 mg per day, influence mineral and steroid metabolism; boron supplementation has been shown to reduce urinary calcium and magnesium loss and to raise serum concentrations of 17-beta-estradiol and testosterone, effects that are more pronounced under low-magnesium conditions. A notable short-term human study reported that boron lowered sex hormone-binding globulin and inflammatory markers while increasing free testosterone within a week, and it is obtained from fruits, vegetables, nuts, and pulses or taken as supplements such as sodium borate and calcium fructoborate. Borate compounds have relatively low mammalian toxicity, though intake is bounded by recommended upper limits.

Bromelain

Bromelain is a mixture of sulfhydryl (cysteine) proteases and associated non-proteolytic components extracted mainly from the stem and fruit of the pineapple, Ananas comosus. Its anti-inflammatory activity is linked both to its proteolytic action and to downregulation of the NF-kB and mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling pathways, reducing pro-inflammatory cytokines and mediators such as interleukin-1beta, interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor alpha and prostaglandins. Beyond its long-standing use as an oral supplement for inflammation, digestion and rheumatic complaints, a concentrated bromelain-based preparation (NexoBrid) is an approved agent for rapid, selective enzymatic debridement of deep burn eschar, reducing the need for surgical excision and skin grafting. Additional research has explored anti-thrombotic, fibrinolytic, immunomodulatory and anti-cancer properties, although clinical evidence for many of these uses remains preliminary.

Butyric Acid

Butyric acid (butanoic acid) is a short-chain fatty acid with the formula CH3CH2CH2COOH, present in the body mainly as its salt, butyrate. It is produced when gut bacteria ferment dietary fiber in the colon, and it also occurs naturally in butter and other dairy fats. Butyrate serves as the primary energy source for the cells lining the colon and is widely studied for its roles in gut and metabolic health.

Cardiogen

Cardiogen is a synthetic short peptide marketed as a 'peptide bioregulator' aimed at the cardiovascular system. It belongs to a family of low-molecular-weight peptides developed by Vladimir Khavinson and colleagues at the St. Petersburg Institute of Bioregulation and Gerontology in Russia, who proposed that such peptides help normalize the function of specific tissues as the body ages. Cardiogen is sold as a dietary supplement rather than an approved drug, and rigorous, independent clinical evidence for it is limited.

Carnosic Acid

Carnosic acid is a phenolic diterpene found in the herbs rosemary (Salvia rosmarinus) and common sage (Salvia officinalis), where it is one of the main compounds responsible for their antioxidant activity. Together with its oxidation product carnosol, it is used commercially as a natural antioxidant food preservative, labeled as rosemary extract (E392). It has been studied extensively for antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective effects, which are largely attributed to its ability to activate the cell's Nrf2 defense pathway.

Carnosine

Carnosine is a naturally occurring dipeptide made of the amino acids beta-alanine and L-histidine, found in high concentrations in skeletal muscle and the brain. It acts inside cells chiefly as a pH buffer during intense exercise and as an antioxidant that also protects proteins from glycation. Because dietary beta-alanine is the limiting ingredient for making it, beta-alanine supplements are commonly used to raise muscle carnosine, and carnosine itself is sold as a supplement studied for exercise, aging, and neurological health.

Chaga Mushroom

Chaga is the common name for Inonotus obliquus, a fungus that grows as a hard, blackened mass on birch and other trees in the cold forests of the Northern Hemisphere [1]. Although its charred-looking growth resembles burnt wood, it is actually a sterile mass of fungal tissue rich in melanin, and it has a long history in folk medicine across Russia and northern Europe, where it is often brewed as a tea [1][2]. Modern laboratory research has examined chaga extracts and their polysaccharides for antioxidant, immune, and anticancer activity, but strong clinical evidence in people is lacking, and its very high oxalate content raises safety concerns with heavy or prolonged use [1][2][3].

Colchicine

Colchicine is an anti-inflammatory medication and a natural alkaloid extracted from the autumn crocus (Colchicum autumnale) [1][2]. It has been used since antiquity for joint pain and is best known today as a treatment for gout, as well as for familial Mediterranean fever, pericarditis and, more recently, cardiovascular disease [1][3]. It works by binding tubulin and blocking the assembly of microtubules, which quietens several arms of the inflammatory response, and it appears on the World Health Organization's list of essential medicines [1][2].

Cyanidin

Cyanidin is a naturally occurring flavonoid pigment belonging to the anthocyanidin class, responsible for many of the red, purple, and magenta colors seen in fruits, flowers, and leaves. It is widespread in plants and especially abundant in berries, red cabbage, red grapes, and other deeply colored produce, usually present as sugar-bound forms called anthocyanins such as cyanidin-3-glucoside. Like other anthocyanidins its color shifts with acidity, and it is studied for antioxidant and other biological activities. In food it is recognized as the natural colorant designated E163a.

DIM

3,3'-Diindolylmethane (DIM) is the principal acid-condensation product of indole-3-carbinol, formed in the stomach from glucosinolates in cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli, cabbage, and kale. Its most studied action is as a selective aryl hydrocarbon receptor modulator: by engaging the AhR and interacting with estrogen receptor signaling, it influences cytochrome P450 enzymes that direct estrogen metabolism, favoring the 2-hydroxylation pathway over more proliferative metabolites. This dual AhR and estrogen-receptor activity underlies its investigation as a candidate in cancer chemoprevention, alongside reports of antiproliferative and even neuroprotective effects in cell models. The evidence remains largely preclinical and concentration-dependent, with some studies noting that low concentrations can paradoxically stimulate estrogen-receptor-positive cell growth, so its clinical role as a dietary supplement is still being defined.

EGCG

EGCG (epigallocatechin gallate) is the most abundant and most studied catechin in green tea, a flavonoid polyphenol that accounts for much of the leaf's reputation for health. It is a strong antioxidant and metabolic modulator that shows up in the research on fat oxidation, cardiovascular and metabolic health, inflammation, and longevity. Most of its effects are hormetic (a mild stress the body adapts to), and the honest catch is that isolated high-dose EGCG on an empty stomach carries a rare liver-injury signal, so it is best taken with food.

Elderberry

Elderberry is the dark purple fruit of the elder shrub Sambucus nigra, used in folk medicine and sold as a supplement, syrup, or lozenge for colds and influenza. It is rich in anthocyanin pigments and other polyphenols with antioxidant activity. Clinical studies of its effect on respiratory infections have given conflicting results, and it is marketed as a dietary supplement rather than an approved medicine.

Emodin

Emodin is a bright orange pigment found in rhubarb, Japanese knotweed, senna and buckthorn, and it is one of the chemicals that makes those herbs work as laxatives. In the laboratory it blocks several human enzymes, most convincingly the cortisol-regenerating enzyme 11beta-HSD1 and the signalling kinase CK2, and it has been tested very heavily in cancer cell cultures. Almost none of this has been checked in people; there is no established human dose, absorption from the gut is poor because the body rapidly conjugates and clears it, and the single controlled human trial applied it to the gums as a light-activated gel rather than swallowing it. European food safety regulators concluded emodin is genotoxic and were unable to set any daily intake they considered safe, and a two-year rodent feeding study found kidney changes at every dose tested; the cell-culture literature claiming broad anti-inflammatory and anticancer benefits also contains an unusual number of retracted papers.

EPA

Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) is a long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid, designated 20:5(n-3), found mainly in oily fish, fish oil, and certain microalgae. It is incorporated into cell membranes and serves as a precursor to signaling molecules that regulate inflammation, blood clotting, and immune function. A highly purified prescription form has been shown to lower cardiovascular risk in people with elevated triglycerides.

Ergothioneine

Ergothioneine is a naturally occurring, sulfur-containing amino acid derived from histidine. It is produced only by certain fungi, mycobacteria, and cyanobacteria, yet it accumulates to relatively high levels in animals, including humans, who obtain it entirely from the diet. Mushrooms are the richest common food source. Studied mainly for its antioxidant and cell-protective properties, it is sold as a dietary supplement, although its precise physiological role in humans is not yet firmly established.

Fisetin

Fisetin is a naturally occurring flavonoid, specifically a flavonol, found in fruits and vegetables such as strawberries, apples and onions. It is a yellow plant pigment that acts as an antioxidant and has drawn scientific interest for its potential effects on aging, including an ability to clear senescent cells. It is sold as a dietary supplement, though clinical evidence of benefit in humans remains limited.

Grape Seed Extract

Grape seed extract is a dietary supplement produced from the seeds of grapes, Vitis vinifera, that remain after winemaking and juice production. It is rich in proanthocyanidins, a class of polyphenolic flavonoid compounds also known as oligomeric proanthocyanidins, which give the extract strong antioxidant activity in laboratory tests. Marketed for cardiovascular and general antioxidant support, grape seed extract has been studied for effects on blood pressure and blood lipids, with modest findings in some trials.

GW-0742

GW-0742 is a potent PPAR-delta agonist and a close cousin of Cardarine, sitting right at the center of the "exercise in a bottle" conversation in metabolic research. By switching on the genes for fat burning and mitochondrial fuel use, it makes muscle lean on fat and spare glycogen, and in rodents the endurance and fat-loss numbers are genuinely eye-catching. As a proof of concept for activating the body's fat-burning machinery, GW-0742 is a fascinating and closely watched research compound.

Hesperidin

Hesperidin is a flavanone glycoside (a plant flavonoid bound to a sugar) that is abundant in citrus fruit, especially the peel and white pith of oranges and lemons; its sugar-free form is called hesperetin. It is best understood as a venous and vascular supplement; it is best known as a partner to diosmin for chronic venous insufficiency (poor return of blood from the legs) and hemorrhoids, with lighter support for antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and modest metabolic effects on blood sugar and lipids.

Isoliquiritigenin

Isoliquiritigenin is a chalcone-type flavonoid from licorice (Glycyrrhiza) with a bright yellow color and a simple trihydroxychalcone backbone. In lab and animal studies it acts as an antioxidant and anti-inflammatory, activating the Nrf2 pathway while dampening NF-kB and the NLRP3 inflammasome, and it inhibits the aromatase enzyme that makes estrogen. Nearly all of the evidence is preclinical; there is no established human dose and human trial data are essentially absent.

Ivermectin

Ivermectin is a broad-spectrum antiparasitic medication of the avermectin family, a group of macrocyclic lactones derived from a soil bacterium. It is used in both human and veterinary medicine to treat and control a range of roundworm and external-parasite infections, including river blindness, strongyloidiasis, and scabies [1][2]. Its discovery was recognized with a share of the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, reflecting its impact on tropical disease worldwide [1].

Lactoferrin

Lactoferrin is a multifunctional iron-binding glycoprotein belonging to the transferrin family, found most abundantly in milk and especially in colostrum. It also occurs in tears, saliva, and other secretions and is stored in the white blood cells called neutrophils, forming part of the body's first-line defenses. Best known for its ability to bind iron and for a broad range of antimicrobial and immune-regulating actions, it is added to some infant formulas and sold as a supplement studied mainly for infection and immune support.

Lutein

Lutein is a yellow xanthophyll carotenoid found in dark leafy greens, corn, and egg yolks. In the body it concentrates in the macula of the retina, where together with zeaxanthin it forms the macular pigment, and it is also selectively taken up into the brain by the carrier protein StARD3; macular pigment density has been found to correlate with lutein concentrations in the occipital cortex, so retinal measurements can serve as a non-invasive index of brain lutein. It is studied mainly in relation to eye health and, more tentatively, cognition, and is used as a dietary supplement and, in some regions, as the food colorant E161b.

Lysine

Lysine is an essential amino acid, meaning the human body cannot make it and must obtain it from food. In its biologically active L-form it is a building block of proteins and is needed for the cross-linking of collagen and for the production of carnitine. It is plentiful in meat, eggs, and legumes, is added to animal feed on a large scale, and is sold as a supplement, including for the popular but poorly supported use against cold sores.

Milk Thistle

Milk thistle (Silybum marianum) is a flowering plant in the daisy family Asteraceae, recognizable by its spiny leaves veined with white and its purple flower heads. Its seeds yield silymarin, a complex of flavonolignans that has been used in traditional medicine for liver complaints since antiquity. Today milk thistle is marketed chiefly as a herbal dietary supplement, and silymarin remains a focus of research into liver protection.

MSM

MSM (methylsulfonylmethane), also known as dimethyl sulfone, is a naturally occurring organosulfur compound and oxidation product of dimethyl sulfoxide that is present in trace amounts in many foods and is widely sold as a dietary supplement. Its reported anti-inflammatory and antioxidant actions are attributed to suppression of NF-kB signaling and downstream pro-inflammatory mediators, together with scavenging of reactive oxygen species and support of endogenous antioxidant capacity. Several randomized controlled trials in knee osteoarthritis report modest improvements in pain and physical function, and the compound is generally recognized as safe and well tolerated at doses of up to several grams daily. Preclinical studies have additionally examined effects on exercise-related oxidative stress, allergic inflammation and cancer-cell biology, including induction of apoptosis and sensitization of tumor cells to chemotherapy, though the overall clinical evidence base remains limited.

N-Acetyl Glucosamine

N-Acetyl Glucosamine (GlcNAc) is an acetylated derivative of the amino sugar glucosamine and a fundamental building block in biology, forming part of chitin, glycosaminoglycans, hyaluronan, and the glycans attached to many proteins. It occurs naturally in the body and in the exoskeletons of insects and crustaceans, and it is sold as a dietary supplement that is chemically distinct from ordinary glucosamine. Research has examined it in inflammatory bowel disease and, more recently, as an oral modulator of immune glycosylation in multiple sclerosis, although human evidence remains modest.

NAC

N-acetylcysteine (NAC) is one of the most versatile and well-evidenced antioxidant compounds available, prized as a direct precursor to glutathione, the body's master intracellular antioxidant. Beyond replenishing glutathione to counter oxidative stress, it fine-tunes glutamate signaling through the cystine-glutamate antiporter, a mechanism that has driven serious clinical research across psychiatry and neurology [1][3]. It is a decades-old hospital staple, serving as the standard antidote for acetaminophen overdose and as a proven mucolytic, all at low cost and with an excellent tolerability record.

Nattokinase

Nattokinase is a protein-digesting enzyme extracted from natto, a traditional Japanese food made by fermenting soybeans with the bacterium Bacillus subtilis. It is a serine protease of the subtilisin family and is notable for its fibrinolytic, or clot-dissolving, activity in the laboratory. It is sold as a dietary supplement marketed for cardiovascular and circulatory support, although rigorous clinical evidence is mixed.

Nigella Sativa

Nigella sativa is an annual flowering plant of the buttercup family (Ranunculaceae), native to parts of western Asia and southeastern Europe and best known for its small black seeds, sold under names such as black seed, black cumin, and kalonji. The seeds have served for millennia as a culinary spice and as a fixture of traditional medicine across the Middle East, North Africa, and South Asia. Their most studied constituent is thymoquinone, a compound concentrated in the seed's volatile oil. Laboratory work has documented antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity, though high-quality clinical evidence that the seed or its oil treats human disease remains limited.

Nobiletin

Nobiletin is a polymethoxylated flavone, a type of plant flavonoid distinguished by several methoxy groups attached to its ring structure. It occurs naturally in the peels of citrus fruits, being especially abundant in tangerines and related species. Laboratory and animal research has examined it for anti-inflammatory, metabolic, and neuroprotective activity, and more recently for its ability to influence the body's circadian clock. It is a dietary constituent and research compound rather than an approved medicine.

Palmitoylethanolamide

Palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) is a naturally occurring fatty acid amide belonging to the N-acylethanolamine family. Produced in the body and also found in foods, it acts largely by activating the nuclear receptor PPAR-alpha and by dampening the activity of inflammatory cells such as mast cells. It has been studied mainly for chronic pain, inflammation, and neuroprotection, and it is sold as a dietary supplement or food for special medical purposes rather than as a conventional drug.

Prostatilen

Prostatilen is a peptide preparation isolated from the prostate glands of cattle, used mainly in Russia and neighbouring countries as a treatment for chronic prostatitis and benign prostatic enlargement. It belongs to a family of tissue-derived peptide bioregulators and is usually given as a rectal suppository. Research on the compound, most of it published in Russian-language journals, points to reductions in prostate swelling and improvements in urinary symptoms, though it has not been approved by regulators in the United States or the European Union.

Pygeum

Pygeum is a fat-soluble extract of the bark of Prunus africana (the African cherry, sometimes called the African plum tree), and its whole reputation rests on one job: easing the urinary symptoms of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH, the non-cancerous prostate enlargement that makes older men get up at night and struggle to fully empty the bladder). The bark is standardized to a blend of fat-soluble actives; phytosterols like beta-sitosterol, pentacyclic triterpenes, and ferulic acid esters; which together are thought to calm prostate inflammation and soften the hormone and growth-factor signals that drive the gland to swell. It has been used in Europe as a prescription-grade BPH remedy since the 1960s, and it is one of the two herbs (saw palmetto is the other) that men reach for first when they want a plant option before or alongside medication.

Quercetin

Quercetin is a plant flavonoid, specifically a flavonol, and one of the most abundant polyphenols in the human diet, found in foods such as onions, apples, capers, berries, and tea. It is a potent antioxidant in laboratory tests and acts as a zinc ionophore, carrying zinc across cell membranes, and it is best known in aging research as one half of the original senolytic combination, dasatinib plus quercetin, which clears senescent cells and has entered first-in-human trials. Oral quercetin is nonetheless poorly absorbed, and it has not been shown in humans to treat or prevent any disease; it is sold as a dietary supplement.

R-Alpha Lipoic Acid

R-alpha-lipoic acid is the naturally occurring form of alpha-lipoic acid, a sulfur-containing compound that the body uses as an essential cofactor in energy metabolism and that also acts as an antioxidant. Alpha-lipoic acid exists as two mirror-image forms, and only the R version is made and used by living cells, whereas most synthetic supplements contain an equal mixture of the R and S forms. Sold as a dietary supplement and, in some countries, as a medicine for diabetic nerve pain, the R form is often promoted as the more biologically active and better absorbed of the two.

Immunomodulator

Rapamycin

Rapamycin, also known as sirolimus, is a macrolide compound isolated from a soil bacterium found on Easter Island (Rapa Nui), where it was first identified as an antifungal. It inhibits the mTOR pathway, a central regulator of cell growth and autophagy, giving it immunosuppressant and antiproliferative properties used clinically to prevent transplant rejection, to coat coronary stents, and to treat certain rare diseases. It has drawn wide scientific interest as the only drug shown to extend lifespan in every model species tested, an effect that is dose- and sex-dependent, and a short course of mTOR inhibition has even been reported to rejuvenate the aging immune system in older adults.

Red Yeast Rice

Red yeast rice is a bright reddish-purple product made by fermenting rice with the mold Monascus purpureus. Long used in China as a food coloring and in traditional medicine, it contains monacolin K, a compound chemically identical to the cholesterol-lowering statin lovastatin. It is sold as a dietary supplement to lower cholesterol, though the strength and purity of products vary considerably.

Reishi

Reishi, known in China as lingzhi and scientifically as Ganoderma lucidum and related species, is a woody polypore mushroom native to East Asia. It has been used in Chinese and other East Asian traditional medicine for more than two thousand years, where it was sometimes called the mushroom of immortality. Its most studied constituents are triterpenoids known as ganoderic acids and cell-wall polysaccharides such as beta-glucans.

Retinalamin

Retinalamin is a peptide preparation made from water-soluble polypeptide fractions extracted from cattle retina, developed and used mainly in Russia and some neighboring countries. Classed as a peptide bioregulator, it is given by injection as a neuroprotective treatment for retinal diseases such as diabetic retinopathy, retinal dystrophies, and glaucoma. It is not approved in the United States or the European Union.

S-Acetyl Glutathione

S-Acetyl Glutathione is an acetylated form of glutathione, the body's principal intracellular antioxidant. It is used as a dietary supplement intended to raise glutathione levels, and the acetyl group is meant to make the molecule more stable and better absorbed than ordinary glutathione when taken by mouth. Once inside cells the acetyl group is removed, releasing active glutathione.

Salicin

Salicin is an alcoholic beta-glucoside and a principal salicylate of willow (Salix) and poplar bark and meadowsweet, historically valued as a botanical analgesic and the conceptual forerunner of aspirin. Following ingestion it is hydrolyzed and oxidized to salicylic acid, the same active metabolite that mediates aspirin's effects, though at doses that spare much of the gastric irritation associated with acetylsalicylic acid. Mechanistic studies attribute its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant actions to suppression of the NF-kappaB and MAPK signaling pathways and activation of the Nrf2-heme oxygenase-1 axis, with additional contributions from co-occurring polyphenols and downstream catechol metabolites; salicin has also been identified as an agonist of the bitter taste receptor TAS2R16, a receptor-mediated route to resolving inflammation. Standardized willow bark preparations are used mainly for musculoskeletal and inflammatory pain, and their clinical activity is not fully accounted for by salicin content alone.

Sea Moss

Sea moss is a red seaweed (Chondrus crispus, the true Irish moss, plus Gracilaria species often sold under the same name) that people soak into a jelly-like "gel" and stir into smoothies, or take as capsules and in blends with bladderwrack and burdock root. It is a genuine whole-food source of iodine and trace minerals, and it sets into that pudding texture thanks to a gel-forming seaweed fiber; in true Irish moss (Chondrus crispus) that fiber is carrageenan, while in the golden Gracilaria type most commonly sold today it is agar (a different gelling polysaccharide from the same red-algae family). Social media sells it hard for thyroid, immunity, gut, and skin, usually with a "92 minerals" hook; the honest read is that it is a decent mineral-and-iodine food with real but modest support, and most of the specific disease claims are traditional or anecdotal rather than proven. Its iodine is the double-edged part; helpful if you are low, but a problem in excess.

Selenium

Selenium is an essential trace element required in small amounts for human health, where it is built into a family of proteins called selenoproteins. These selenoproteins, which include the antioxidant enzyme glutathione peroxidase, thioredoxin reductase, and the deiodinases that regulate thyroid hormone, give selenium roles in antioxidant defense, immune function, and thyroid metabolism. Its relationship with health follows a U-shaped curve, since both deficiency and excess are harmful.

SkQ1

SkQ1 is a mitochondria-targeted antioxidant, a synthetic compound built by attaching the plant antioxidant plastoquinone to a positively charged carrier that accumulates inside mitochondria. Developed by a Russian team led by Vladimir Skulachev, it is designed to neutralize reactive oxygen species at their main source and has been studied for aging and age-related conditions. Its best-known application is a dilute eye-drop formulation approved in Russia to treat dry eye syndrome.

Tart Cherry Extract

Tart cherry (Prunus cerasus, usually the Montmorency variety) extract is a whole-fruit polyphenol (a broad class of plant antioxidant compounds) supplement loaded with anthocyanins (the red-purple flavonoid pigments that give the fruit its color) plus a naturally small dose of melatonin (the hormone that signals darkness to your body clock). It reads as a gentle food-derived antioxidant and anti-inflammatory rather than a hard-hitting drug; that mild profile is exactly why people reach for it. The three areas with the most human data are sleep quality, recovery from hard exercise (less soreness, faster return of strength), and lowering uric acid to ease gout. The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory action is the common thread running under all three. It comes as concentrate (a thick juice syrup), powder, or capsules, and potency swings wildly between products; that variability is the single biggest thing to watch.

Thymalin

Thymalin is a polypeptide preparation extracted from the thymus gland of calves, developed in the Soviet Union and Russia and used as an immunomodulator. It is a mixture of small thymic peptides intended to restore and regulate immune function, particularly the maturation and activity of T lymphocytes [2]. Studied and marketed chiefly in Russia and neighboring countries as an immunocorrector and geroprotector, Thymalin is given by injection and is not an approved medicine in the United States or the European Union [1][2].

Thymulin

Thymulin is a thymic peptide hormone, a nonapeptide produced by the epithelial cells of the thymus gland, that plays a role in the maturation and regulation of T lymphocytes. It was described in the 1970s, originally under the name serum thymic factor (facteur thymique serique, FTS), and its biological activity depends on being bound to the metal zinc, making it a zinc-dependent metallopeptide [1]. Beyond its classic immune role, thymulin also interacts with the neuroendocrine system and has shown anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties in experimental studies, which has prompted interest in its therapeutic potential [2].

Tiger Milk Mushroom

Tiger Milk Mushroom is a polypore from Malaysia and neighbouring parts of South East Asia, and the part sold is the sclerotium, a dense underground storage body rather than the cap. Indigenous communities in Malaysia have used it for cough, asthma and general stamina for centuries, and the name comes from the story that it grows where a tigress dripped milk. It was effectively unbuyable until the 2010s because it could not be farmed; wild sclerotia were rare enough to be a luxury item. A Malaysian company then succeeded in cultivating it by solid-state fermentation, which is why almost every product on the market is the same cultivar, TM02, and why almost every study names that cultivar too.

Trekrezan

Trekrezan is a Russian actoprotector and adaptogen (a synthetic agent that raises the body's nonspecific resistance to physical, thermal, and hypoxic stress) that also acts as an immunomodulator and antioxidant. Chemically it is tris(2-hydroxyethyl)ammonium 2-methylphenoxyacetate, the triethanolamine salt of ortho-cresoxyacetic acid (molecular formula C15H25NO6), and the same active substance is marketed in agriculture and microbiology under the name Crezacin. It was developed by the school of academician Mikhail Voronkov at the Irkutsk Institute of Organic Chemistry, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, and has been studied primarily in rodent models with a smaller body of human cold-exposure data. Rather than binding a single receptor, Trekrezan is characterized as an energy-stabilizing, meteoadaptogenic compound that shifts stressed tissue metabolism back toward aerobic ATP production, strengthens enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant defenses, and modulates humoral immunity and hematopoiesis.

Tributyrin

Tributyrin, also called glyceryl tributyrate, is a triglyceride made of glycerol esterified with three molecules of butyric acid, and it occurs naturally in butter. It serves as a stable, orally absorbed prodrug that releases butyrate into the body, letting the short-chain fatty acid reach the bloodstream more effectively than butyrate salts [1]. Because butyrate acts as a histone deacetylase inhibitor, tributyrin has been studied in cancer, gut health and, more recently, as a postbiotic dietary supplement [4].

Turmeric (Curcumin)

Curcumin is a bright yellow polyphenol, the principal curcuminoid of turmeric, the spice ground from the rhizome of Curcuma longa in the ginger family. It has long been used as a food colouring and flavouring and is widely sold as a herbal supplement, but it is chemically unstable and very poorly absorbed by mouth. In medicinal chemistry it is regarded as a difficult, likely misleading lead compound, and despite extensive study no rigorous clinical trial has established it as an effective medical treatment [1][2].

UDCA

Ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) is a hydrophilic bile acid, originally identified in bear bile, used chiefly to treat primary biliary cholangitis and to dissolve certain cholesterol gallstones. It improves cholestatic liver biochemistry by enriching the bile acid pool with a less cytotoxic, more water-loving species and by protecting cholangiocytes and hepatocytes, while its taurine conjugate acts as a chemical chaperone that relieves endoplasmic reticulum stress and reduces apoptosis. These properties underlie growing interest in UDCA and its conjugates as neuroprotective and metabolic agents, including disease-modifying trials in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. In a notable repurposing discovery, UDCA was shown to downregulate the SARS-CoV-2 entry receptor ACE2 by inhibiting the farnesoid X receptor, reducing infection across organoids, animals and human tissues; the drug appears on the World Health Organization list of essential medicines.

Ursolic Acid

Ursolic acid is a pentacyclic triterpenoid found in the waxy peel of apples and in herbs like rosemary, basil, and holy basil. In rodents it enhances skeletal muscle IGF-1/insulin signaling through Akt, blunts atrophy genes, increases brown fat, and improves glucose tolerance. It also has broad anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity in cell and animal work. Human data are small and mixed, and oral bioavailability is genuinely poor.

Vitamin C

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is a water-soluble essential nutrient that humans cannot synthesize; it acts as an antioxidant and as a cofactor for iron- and copper-dependent enzymes, including the prolyl hydroxylases required for collagen synthesis and the TET dioxygenases and histone demethylases that shape the epigenome. At the millimolar plasma concentrations achievable only by intravenous infusion, ascorbate paradoxically behaves as a pro-oxidant, generating hydrogen peroxide that selectively stresses tumor cells; in KRAS or BRAF mutant colorectal cells, uptake of the oxidized form depletes glutathione and inactivates GAPDH, producing a lethal energetic crisis. High-dose intravenous ascorbate is therefore under active investigation as an adjunct in oncology and, through restoration of TET2 activity, in certain hematologic malignancies, whereas randomized trials such as LOVIT have tempered enthusiasm for its routine use in sepsis. Chronic dietary deficiency causes scurvy, reflecting the vitamin's indispensable role in connective-tissue integrity.

Vitamin E

Vitamin E is the collective name for a group of eight fat-soluble compounds, four tocopherols and four tocotrienols, of which alpha-tocopherol is the form the body preferentially retains and the one with the greatest vitamin activity. Its principal role is as a lipid-soluble antioxidant that protects cell membranes from damage by free radicals. Vitamin E is found in vegetable oils, nuts, seeds, and green vegetables, and dietary deficiency is rare, usually resulting from disorders of fat absorption rather than low intake.

Wolverine Stack

The Wolverine Stack is a popular regenerative peptide combination that pairs BPC-157 with TB-500, named for the comic-book mutant famous for his near-instant healing. It brings together two of the most sought-after recovery peptides: BPC-157, a gastric peptide that accelerates tendon, ligament, muscle, and gut healing, and TB-500, a thymosin beta-4 peptide that drives cell migration and new blood vessel growth. Marketed to athletes and biohackers chasing faster injury recovery, the stack is prized for its complementary, tissue-repairing effects.

Zinc Picolinate

Zinc picolinate is a dietary supplement form of the essential mineral zinc, in which zinc is bound to picolinic acid, a natural metabolite of the amino acid tryptophan. Like other zinc supplements it is used to help meet zinc requirements and to correct or prevent zinc deficiency. It is often promoted for having good intestinal absorption, a claim supported by some, though limited, human research.

Betamethasone

Betamethasone is a synthetic glucocorticoid, a potent corticosteroid drug used for its anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects. It is prescribed for a broad range of conditions, including inflammatory and allergic skin disorders, autoimmune and rheumatic diseases, and, when given to expectant mothers before an anticipated premature birth, to speed maturation of the baby's lungs [1]. Structurally it is a stereoisomer of dexamethasone and is available as tablets, injections, and topical creams and ointments. It appears on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines and is widely available as a generic.

Celecoxib

Celecoxib is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that selectively targets the cyclooxygenase-2 enzyme, used mainly to relieve pain and inflammation in arthritis and related conditions [1][2]. By focusing on COX-2 while largely sparing COX-1, it aims to ease inflammation with a lower risk of stomach ulcers than older, nonselective NSAIDs [2]. Discovered at Searle and approved in the United States in 1998, it is sold under the brand name Celebrex and is now widely available as a generic [1]. Like other NSAIDs it carries cardiovascular and other risks that shape how it is prescribed [1][3].

Ibuprofen

Ibuprofen is a propionic acid nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug that relieves pain, fever, and inflammation by reversibly and competitively inhibiting both cyclooxygenase isoforms, COX-1 and COX-2, thereby reducing synthesis of prostaglandins from arachidonic acid. Marketed as a racemate, it undergoes a distinctive unidirectional metabolic inversion in which the inactive R-enantiomer is converted in vivo to the pharmacologically active S-form. Because it competes for the same catalytic site as aspirin on platelet COX-1, ibuprofen can transiently blunt aspirin's irreversible antiplatelet effect, a clinically relevant interaction in patients taking low-dose aspirin for cardioprotection. Large randomized evidence from the PRECISION trial found ibuprofen non-inferior in cardiovascular safety to naproxen and celecoxib, though with comparatively higher gastrointestinal and renal event rates; it remains one of the most widely used over-the-counter medicines worldwide.

Indomethacin

Indomethacin, also spelled indometacin, is a potent nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) of the indole acetic acid class, used to relieve pain, fever, and inflammation. It is a mainstay for acute gout, ankylosing spondylitis, and other inflammatory arthritis, and it also has specialized roles in closing a patent ductus arteriosus in premature infants and in a distinctive group of indomethacin-responsive headaches. First introduced in the 1960s, it is considered one of the stronger NSAIDs and appears on the World Health Organization list of essential medicines.

Ketorolac

Ketorolac is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) noted for unusually strong analgesic activity, used for the short-term management of moderate to severe pain. Chemically a pyrrolizine carboxylic acid derivative, it is often given by injection after surgery, where it can relieve pain comparably to opioids such as morphine while sparing opioid use [1]. Because of a heightened risk of gastrointestinal, kidney, and bleeding complications, its use is deliberately limited to short courses [1].

Meloxicam

Meloxicam is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) of the oxicam class, used to relieve pain and inflammation, most commonly in arthritis. It preferentially inhibits the cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) enzyme over COX-1, a selectivity that is greatest at lower doses and is associated with somewhat better gastrointestinal tolerability than older, non-selective NSAIDs [1][3]. Sold under brand names such as Mobic, it is a widely prescribed medicine for osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis [2].

Gastrointestinal

Mesalamine

Mesalamine, also known as mesalazine or 5-aminosalicylic acid (5-ASA), is an anti-inflammatory medication of the aminosalicylate class used to treat inflammatory bowel disease. Chemically related to salicylic acid, it works locally on the lining of the intestine to reduce inflammation and is a mainstay of treatment for ulcerative colitis, where it is used both to bring on and to maintain remission. It is delivered in oral tablets and capsules designed to release the drug in the colon, as well as in rectal suppositories and enemas.

Methylprednisolone

Methylprednisolone is a synthetic glucocorticoid, a corticosteroid drug used to suppress inflammation and calm an overactive immune system. Sold under brand names such as Medrol, Solu-Medrol, and Depo-Medrol, it is prescribed for a wide range of conditions including severe allergic reactions, asthma flares, autoimmune diseases, and relapses of multiple sclerosis, as well as to prevent transplant rejection. It acts on the glucocorticoid receptor to alter the activity of many genes involved in the immune and inflammatory response, and it appears on the World Health Organization's list of essential medicines.

Mometasone Furoate

Mometasone furoate is a synthetic corticosteroid (glucocorticoid) with strong anti-inflammatory activity, used for a range of allergic and inflammatory conditions. It is applied to the skin for inflammatory rashes, sprayed into the nose for hay fever and nasal polyps, and inhaled to help control asthma. Patented in 1981 and introduced in the late 1980s, it appears on the World Health Organization's list of essential medicines and is available generically.

Omega-3 Fatty Acids

Omega-3 fatty acids are a family of polyunsaturated fats defined by a carbon-carbon double bond positioned three atoms from the methyl end of the molecule. The three most important to human health are alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), found in plants such as flaxseed and walnuts, and the longer-chain eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), which come mainly from fish, fish oil, and marine algae. Because the body cannot make ALA and converts it only inefficiently into EPA and DHA, these fats are treated as dietary essentials. They are consumed both as ordinary foods and dietary supplements and, in purified high-dose forms, as prescription medicines for elevated triglycerides.

Prednisolone

Prednisolone is a synthetic corticosteroid (a glucocorticoid) with strong anti-inflammatory and immune-suppressing effects. It is used across a wide range of conditions, including allergies, asthma, rheumatoid arthritis and other autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, and it is the active form into which the related drug prednisone is converted in the body. Listed by the World Health Organization as an essential medicine, it is widely available as an inexpensive generic in oral, injectable and eye-drop forms.

Triamcinolone

Triamcinolone is a synthetic glucocorticoid, a class of corticosteroid hormone used to lower inflammation and dampen overactive immune responses. Patented in 1956 and introduced for medical use in 1958, it is roughly five times as potent as cortisol while producing little salt-retaining mineralocorticoid activity. It is prescribed across dermatology, rheumatology, allergy and respiratory medicine, most often in the form of its longer-acting ester, triamcinolone acetonide.

BPC-157

BPC-157 (Body Protection Compound-157) is a stable synthetic pentadecapeptide derived from a protein found in human gastric juice, used as a research peptide for soft-tissue healing. Across a large body of preclinical work it has promoted repair of tendon, ligament, muscle, bone, gut, and nerve tissue, largely by driving angiogenesis through the VEGFR2-Akt-eNOS nitric-oxide pathway and by rerouting blood flow through pre-existing collateral vessels. Its evidence base is almost entirely animal studies, with minimal human data and unknown long-term safety, and it is prohibited in sport; it should be regarded as investigational.

KPV

KPV is a naturally occurring tripeptide corresponding to the C-terminal sequence (lysine-proline-valine) of alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone, and it retains much of the parent hormone's anti-inflammatory activity in a minimal fragment. It appears to act at least partly independently of classical melanocortin-1 receptor signaling; after entering cells, including intestinal epithelium via the di/tripeptide transporter PepT1, it inhibits NF-kB and related pro-inflammatory cascades and lowers cytokine production. In murine models of colitis, KPV promotes earlier recovery and reduces mucosal inflammation, and it has become a frequent payload for nanoparticle and hydrogel delivery systems aimed at inflammatory bowel disease. Its small size, oral stability and targeted mechanism have made it a widely studied candidate for gastrointestinal and dermatological inflammatory conditions.

ARA-290

ARA-290 (cibinetide) is an 11-amino-acid peptide derived from the helix-B region of erythropoietin, engineered to trigger erythropoietin's tissue-protective and repair signaling without stimulating red blood cell production. Acting through the innate repair receptor, it reduces inflammation and promotes nerve and tissue healing, and in controlled trials in sarcoidosis patients it improved neuropathic pain and regrew small nerve fibers in the cornea and skin [1][2]. It is an investigational peptide with a notably clean safety profile, of particular interest for small-fiber neuropathy and metabolic and inflammatory conditions [3].

LL-37

LL-37 is the human body's own frontline defense peptide, the sole human member of the cathelicidin family, produced naturally to fight infection and drive healing. It disrupts microbial membranes to clear pathogens, promotes wound re-epithelialization and new blood-vessel growth, and fine-tunes immune signaling, making it a remarkably multifunctional molecule. Harnessing a defender the body already trusts, LL-37 is a genuinely potent and fascinating subject of research into infection, tissue repair, and inflammation.

Thymagen

Thymagen, also transliterated as Thymogen, is a synthetic thymus-derived peptide used as an immunomodulator, developed in the Soviet Union and Russia as part of a family of short peptide bioregulators. It is a dipeptide made of the amino acids glutamic acid and tryptophan (glutamyl-tryptophan), designed to reproduce the immune-stimulating activity of the thymus gland [3][4]. Given mainly by nasal or injectable routes, it has been studied and used chiefly in Russia and neighboring countries to support immune function in infections, immunodeficiency, and the perioperative and aging settings; it is not an approved medicine in the United States or the European Union [2][3].

Cartalax

Cartalax is a synthetic short peptide bioregulator, the tripeptide Ala-Glu-Asp, from the celebrated Russian family of tissue-targeted peptides studied for cellular renewal and healthy aging. Working at the level of gene expression, it has been shown to reduce markers of cellular senescence and support proliferation in aging cells. For those pursuing a science-driven approach to regeneration and longevity, Cartalax is a compelling peptide.

Naltrexone

Naltrexone is an opioid receptor antagonist used primarily to treat alcohol use disorder and opioid use disorder. Taken orally or as a monthly extended-release injection, it blocks the euphoric and reinforcing effects of opioids and reduces alcohol craving, and it appears on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. At much lower doses than those approved for addiction, so-called low-dose naltrexone (LDN) is used off-label for chronic pain and inflammatory conditions, although that evidence is preliminary.

CBD

CBD (cannabidiol) is a non-intoxicating phytocannabinoid, one of the many active compounds found in the cannabis plant. Unlike THC, it does not produce a high, and a purified pharmaceutical form is approved to treat certain severe childhood epilepsies. It is also widely sold as an unregulated supplement and studied for anxiety, pain, and inflammation, though high-quality evidence for most of those uses remains limited.

reference shelf; no outlet carries these yet

1-MNA

1-Methylnicotinamide (1-MNA) is an endogenous metabolite of nicotinamide produced by the enzyme nicotinamide N-methyltransferase (NNMT), and it sits within the nicotinamide and NAD+ salvage pathway. Long regarded as a biologically inert excretory product, it is now recognised as a vasoprotective, anti-thrombotic and anti-inflammatory agent that stimulates endothelial release of prostacyclin (PGI2) and nitric oxide [1][2]. It is marketed as a metabolic and longevity-oriented supplement.

A4 Amyloid Beta

Amyloid beta (Aβ), historically called the A4 peptide, is a short peptide of roughly 36 to 43 amino acids best known as the principal constituent of the amyloid plaques found in the brains of people with Alzheimer's disease. It is produced naturally in the body through enzymatic cleavage of a larger membrane protein, and its accumulation and aggregation are central to the leading theory of how Alzheimer's disease develops.

Adiponectin

Adiponectin is a protein hormone secreted mainly by fat cells that helps regulate blood sugar and the breakdown of fatty acids. Encoded by the ADIPOQ gene, it is one of the most abundant hormones in human blood and improves the body's sensitivity to insulin while exerting anti-inflammatory effects. Unusually for a fat-derived hormone, its levels tend to fall rather than rise with obesity, and low levels are linked to type 2 diabetes and metabolic disease.

Agaricus Blazei

Agaricus blazei is an edible mushroom, more correctly known by the scientific name Agaricus subrufescens, that is used both as food and as a traditional health supplement. Native to the Americas and widely cultivated in Brazil and Japan, it is prized for its almond-like aroma and marketed under names such as almond mushroom and royal sun agaricus. It contains polysaccharides including beta-glucans that are the focus of research into immune and liver effects, though strong clinical evidence for medicinal benefit remains limited.

Agarikon Mushroom

Agarikon is the common name for Laricifomes officinalis, a large, long-lived bracket fungus that grows on conifer trees in the old-growth forests of Europe, Asia, and North America. Also called the quinine conk or larch bracket, it has a long history of medicinal and ceremonial use, from ancient Greek treatments for consumption to the spiritual practices of Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest. Now rare and declining, it is the subject of modern research into antimicrobial and antiviral compounds found in its wood-decaying tissue.

Akkermansia

Akkermansia muciniphila is a common bacterium of the human gut that lives in the protective mucus layer of the intestine, where it feeds on mucin. Discovered in 2004, it typically makes up a few percent of the gut microbes in healthy people, and its abundance tends to be lower in obesity and type 2 diabetes. It has drawn intense research interest as a next-generation probiotic, with early human studies suggesting that supplementing it may improve markers of metabolic health.

Allyl Isothiocyanate

Allyl isothiocyanate (AITC), the pungent principle of mustard, horseradish and wasabi, is a dietary isothiocyanate and a potent agonist of the TRPA1 sensory ion channel. It induces phase II detoxification enzymes, shows cancer chemopreventive activity concentrated in the urinary bladder, and drives TRPA1-dependent sensory and vascular responses.

Aloe Vera

Aloe vera is a succulent plant of the genus Aloe (family Asphodelaceae) whose fleshy leaves yield two distinct materials: a clear inner gel and a bitter yellow latex. The inner gel is used widely in topical skin and wound products, in cosmetics, and as an ingredient in beverages and foods, while the latex has historically served as a stimulant laxative. Evidence is strongest for topical use on minor burns and skin healing; oral uses, including effects on blood glucose, are studied but less consistent.

Alpha-Ketoglutarate (AKG)

Alpha-ketoglutarate (AKG), the conjugate base of alpha-ketoglutaric acid, is a five-carbon dicarboxylic acid that serves as a central intermediate of the citric acid (Krebs) cycle and a hub of amino acid and nitrogen metabolism. Beyond its metabolic role, it acts as a required cofactor for a large family of enzymes that regulate collagen formation and the epigenetic marking of DNA and histones. It is also sold as a dietary supplement, typically as calcium, arginine, or ornithine salts, and has drawn research interest for possible effects on aging and healthspan [1][4].

Amycenone

Amycenone is a standardized bioactive extract obtained from the Yamabushitake mushroom (Hericium erinaceus), studied as an anti-inflammatory antidepressant. In a lipopolysaccharide-induced mouse model of inflammatory depression, oral amycenone blocked the rise in tumor necrosis factor-alpha, increased the anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-10, and reduced depression-like immobility in the tail-suspension and forced-swim tests, with effects comparable to the SSRI paroxetine. It is investigated as a natural supplement for inflammation-related mood disorders.

Anandamide

Anandamide, also known as N-arachidonoylethanolamine, is a naturally occurring fatty-acid neurotransmitter and the first endocannabinoid to be identified. Discovered in 1992, it is produced on demand in the body from membrane lipids and binds the same cannabinoid receptors targeted by compounds in cannabis. It takes part in the regulation of mood, appetite, memory, pain, and fertility, and is broken down rapidly by the enzyme fatty acid amide hydrolase.

Andrographis

Andrographis is a herbal supplement made from Andrographis paniculata, an annual plant of the family Acanthaceae native to South and Southeast Asia and known by common names such as green chiretta and kalmegh. Its main active constituents are bitter diterpenoid compounds, chiefly andrographolide. Long used in Ayurvedic and traditional Chinese medicine for fever and colds, it is taken today mainly as a remedy for upper respiratory infections, though the supporting clinical evidence is of variable quality.

Androstenediol

Androstenediol (androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol, commonly abbreviated 5-androstenediol or 5-AED) is an endogenous Δ5 androstane steroid formed as a direct metabolite of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA, the most abundant circulating adrenal steroid). It sits at a branch point in steroidogenesis, functioning both as a weak, ERβ-preferring estrogen (a steroid that activates the estrogen receptor) and as a prohormone that can be converted onward to testosterone. Its most distinctive documented activity is immunomodulatory and hematopoietic; under the development code Neumune it was investigated as a radiation countermeasure that accelerates recovery of white blood cells and platelets after whole-body irradiation. Its inclusion in the neurosteroid grouping is one of exhaustiveness, since unlike allopregnanolone it has only a marginal classic neurosteroid profile at the GABA-A and NMDA receptors, and its central effects are attributed mainly to estrogen receptor beta signaling.

Anserine

Anserine is a naturally occurring dipeptide made of beta-alanine and the amino acid 3-methylhistidine, a methylated relative of carnosine. It is found in the skeletal muscle and brain of many animals, especially fish and poultry, though it is present in only small amounts in human tissue. Like carnosine, it acts as an antioxidant and pH buffer, and it is sold as a supplement, usually together with carnosine, and studied mainly for effects on aging and cognition.

Immunomodulator

Apremilast

Apremilast (Otezla) is an orally active PDE4 inhibitor and the first PDE4 drug ever FDA-approved for an immune-dermatologic indication (2014). By raising intracellular cAMP it recalibrates the immune system from the inside out, dialing down TNF-alpha, IL-23 and IL-17 while lifting anti-inflammatory IL-10. That single, elegant switch clears plaque psoriasis, calms psoriatic arthritis, and heals Behcet's oral ulcers, all from a convenient oral tablet that needs no lab monitoring.

Artemisinin

Artemisinin is a potent antimalarial compound originally extracted from sweet wormwood (Artemisia annua), a plant long used in traditional Chinese medicine. It belongs to a class of molecules called sesquiterpene lactones and carries an unusual chemical feature, an internal peroxide bridge, that is central to how it kills malaria parasites. Discovered by the Chinese scientist Tu Youyou, who received a share of the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, artemisinin and its derivatives are the foundation of the combination therapies now used worldwide against falciparum malaria.

Ashitaba

Ashitaba is the common name for Angelica keiskei, a perennial flowering plant in the carrot family (Apiaceae) native to the Pacific coast of Japan. Its Japanese name means "tomorrow's leaf," a reference to how quickly it regrows after being cut. The plant is eaten as a vegetable and used in Japanese folk medicine, and its yellow sap is notable for containing distinctive chalcones, chiefly xanthoangelol and 4-hydroxyderricin, which are the focus of most laboratory research.

Aspirin

Aspirin is acetylsalicylic acid, the oldest drug most people take and still the most-studied. It permanently disables cyclooxygenase by acetylating a serine in the active site [3], which is why a platelet hit once stays hit for its whole ten-day life [2]. ⚠️ It is not a selective COX-1 inhibitor: in human whole blood the preference is about fourfold [1]. Its platelet selectivity comes from where and how it acts, not from which enzyme it prefers.

Astragaloside IV

Astragaloside IV is a cycloartane-type triterpenoid saponin and one of the principal bioactive constituents of Astragalus membranaceus (Astragali Radix, or huang qi), a root long used in traditional Chinese medicine. It is commonly used as a chemical marker for the quality control of astragalus preparations. In laboratory and animal research it has drawn interest for anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and cardioprotective activity, though clinical evidence in humans remains limited.

Astragalus

Astragalus is a herbal medicine prepared from the dried root of Astragalus membranaceus (also classified as Astragalus mongholicus or Astragalus propinquus), a flowering legume known in Chinese as huang qi. It is one of the most widely used tonic herbs in traditional Chinese medicine, where the root is valued for supporting energy and immune function. Its roots contain saponins such as astragaloside IV, polysaccharides, and flavonoids, and modern research has focused mainly on its immune-modulating properties.

Astragalus Polysaccharides

Astragalus polysaccharides (often abbreviated APS) are the carbohydrate fraction extracted from the root of Astragalus membranaceus, the legume used in traditional Chinese medicine as huang qi. They are regarded as one of the main groups of bioactive compounds in the root and are studied chiefly for immune-modulating activity. Most of the evidence comes from cell and animal experiments, where the polysaccharides act on immune cells and their signaling pathways.

Baicalein

Baicalein is a naturally occurring flavone, a type of flavonoid, best known as one of the principal active compounds in the root of Baikal skullcap (Scutellaria baicalensis), a herb long used in traditional Chinese medicine. Chemically it is the aglycone of baicalin, meaning baicalin is its sugar-bearing form, and the two interconvert in the body. Laboratory and animal research has explored baicalein for antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective effects, though it is not an approved medicine.

Baicalin

Baicalin is a flavonoid glucuronide, the sugar-bearing form of the flavone baicalein, and one of the most abundant active compounds in the root of Baikal skullcap (Scutellaria baicalensis). The root, called Huang Qin, is a staple of traditional Chinese medicine, and baicalin has been studied for anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, hepatoprotective, and anxiety-related effects. Despite a large body of laboratory work, its poor absorption and the shortage of large human trials keep it in the realm of research rather than approved medicine.

Banaba Leaf Extract

Banaba leaf extract is a botanical extract from the leaves of Lagerstroemia speciosa, a flowering tree of the family Lythraceae native to tropical Asia, also known as giant crepe-myrtle or pride of India. Long used as a leaf tea in Southeast Asian folk medicine for lowering blood sugar, the extract is valued for two main constituents, the triterpene corosolic acid and a group of ellagitannins. It is marketed as a dietary supplement for blood-sugar and metabolic support, with most supporting evidence coming from animal studies and small human trials.

Beta-Carotene

Beta-carotene is an orange-red plant pigment and the best-known provitamin A carotenoid, meaning the body can convert it into vitamin A. It is abundant in carrots, sweet potatoes, and dark leafy greens, and is used both as a natural food coloring and as a supplement. While beta-carotene from food is healthful, large trials found that high-dose beta-carotene supplements actually raised the risk of lung cancer in smokers, an important cautionary lesson in nutrition science.

Beta-Caryophyllene

Beta-caryophyllene is a naturally occurring bicyclic sesquiterpene found in the essential oils of many plants, including black pepper, cloves, hops, rosemary, and cannabis. It is unusual among natural products for combining a cyclobutane ring with a trans double bond enclosed in a nine-membered ring. Unlike most plant terpenes, it behaves as a dietary cannabinoid, selectively activating the cannabinoid receptor type 2 (CB2) without the psychoactivity associated with CB1. The compound is widely used as a food flavoring and holds generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status.

Beta-Glucans

Beta-glucans are a group of naturally occurring polysaccharides made of D-glucose units joined by beta glycosidic bonds. They occur in the cell walls of cereals such as oats and barley, as well as in baker's yeast, mushrooms, algae, and some bacteria, and their structure varies with the source. Soluble cereal beta-glucans are best known for lowering blood LDL cholesterol, which underpins approved heart-health claims in several regions, while forms derived from yeast and fungi are studied mainly for effects on the immune system.

Beta-Sitosterol

Beta-sitosterol is a phytosterol, a plant-derived sterol whose chemical structure closely resembles that of cholesterol. It is one of the most abundant plant sterols in the human diet and is distributed widely in vegetable oils, nuts, seeds, legumes, and other plant foods. It has been studied mainly for two purposes: lowering blood cholesterol by interfering with cholesterol absorption in the gut, and easing the urinary symptoms of benign prostatic hyperplasia [1][2]. It is available as a dietary supplement and as an added ingredient in cholesterol-lowering foods.

Bitter Melon Extract

Bitter melon extract is a herbal preparation derived from Momordica charantia, a tropical and subtropical vine of the gourd family (Cucurbitaceae) whose warty, intensely bitter fruit is both a vegetable and a traditional medicine. Long used in Asian, African, and Caribbean cooking and folk remedies, the plant and its extracts have been studied mainly for a possible blood-sugar-lowering effect in type 2 diabetes [1]. Clinical evidence for this use is mixed and generally of low quality, with some trials and analyses suggesting a modest benefit and others finding no clear effect [2][3]. It is sold as a dietary supplement in the form of capsules, powders, teas, and juices.

Bone Broth Protein

Bone broth protein is a powdered dietary supplement made from bone broth, the savory liquid produced by simmering animal bones and connective tissue for long periods. Rich in collagen and gelatin, it supplies amino acids such as glycine and proline along with minerals drawn from the bones [1]. It is marketed as a protein source and for joint, skin, and gut health, though rigorous human evidence for most of these claims is limited and much of the supporting research is preliminary or from animal studies [1][3]. It is sold as a flavored or unflavored powder, essentially a dried, concentrated form of traditional bone broth [2].

Boswellia

Boswellia is a genus of flowering trees in the family Burseraceae whose fragrant oleo-gum resin, known as frankincense, has a long history in traditional medicine. Standardized extracts of Boswellia serrata are studied chiefly as anti-inflammatory agents, with a family of pentacyclic triterpenes called boswellic acids regarded as the main active constituents. Research has focused on osteoarthritis and other inflammatory conditions.

C60 Fullerene

C60 fullerene, also called buckminsterfullerene, is a spherical molecule made of sixty carbon atoms arranged in a hollow cage of hexagons and pentagons. It is an allotrope of carbon, discovered in 1985, and its soccer-ball shape earned it a name honoring the architect Buckminster Fuller. In biomedical research it has been studied mainly for its antioxidant and free-radical-scavenging properties.

Calcium Alpha-Ketoglutarate

Calcium alpha-ketoglutarate (Ca-AKG) is the calcium salt of alpha-ketoglutarate, a naturally occurring metabolite of the citric acid (Krebs) cycle that sits at the crossroads of energy production and amino acid metabolism. The calcium form is a stable, water-soluble powder used as a dietary supplement, and it is the version studied in much of the recent research on aging. Interest in Ca-AKG grew after animal experiments suggested it could extend healthy lifespan, although robust evidence in humans is still limited.

Cannabichromene

Cannabichromene (CBC) is a non-psychotropic phytocannabinoid and one of the six most abundant cannabinoids in Cannabis sativa, biosynthesized from cannabigerolic acid (CBGA) via the enzyme CBCA synthase and decarboxylated from its acidic precursor cannabichromenic acid. Structurally a resorcinol-derived chromene rather than the classic dibenzopyran of THC, it binds the classical cannabinoid receptors only weakly and instead acts primarily as a potent agonist of the TRPA1 ion channel while inhibiting the cellular reuptake and degradation of the endocannabinoid anandamide. Preclinical studies describe anti-inflammatory, gastrointestinal-normalizing, antidepressant-like, analgesic, antimicrobial and neural stem-cell-supporting activity, and CBC is frequently cited as a contributor to the "entourage effect" of whole-plant cannabis. It is not scheduled as a distinct controlled substance in most jurisdictions but is regulated as a cannabis constituent, and its clinical evidence base in humans remains early-stage.

Carvacrol

Carvacrol is a monoterpenoid phenol best known as the compound that gives oregano its characteristic warm, pungent aroma. It occurs in the essential oils of oregano, thyme, savory, and related plants of the mint family, and is used as a food flavoring and fragrance ingredient. Carvacrol has been studied extensively for antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activity, with its ability to disrupt bacterial cell membranes making it of particular interest as a natural preservative.

Cat's Claw

Cat's claw (Uncaria tomentosa) is a woody climbing vine of the madder family (Rubiaceae) native to the Amazon rainforest and other parts of Central and South America, named for the curved, claw-like thorns along its stems. Its root and bark have long been used in Peruvian and other indigenous herbal traditions, and it is now sold worldwide as a dietary supplement, chiefly for immune support and joint and inflammatory conditions. Laboratory and small clinical studies point to anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity, but high-quality evidence for treating human disease remains limited.

CBG

CBG (cannabigerol) is a non-intoxicating phytocannabinoid found in the cannabis plant, often called the mother cannabinoid because its acidic form is the precursor from which other major cannabinoids are made. It usually occurs in only small amounts in mature plants and is the subject of early-stage research into anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and other effects. Unlike THC, it does not produce a high.

Chamomile

Chamomile is the common name for several daisy-like flowering plants in the family Asteraceae, most importantly German chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla, also cataloged as Matricaria recutita) and Roman chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile). Its dried flower heads have been used for centuries as a soothing herbal tea and folk remedy for relaxation, sleep, and digestion. The flowers are rich in the flavonoid apigenin and in terpenoids such as alpha-bisabolol and chamazulene, and modern research has documented anxiolytic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant activity, with the calming effect linked to apigenin binding the benzodiazepine site of the GABA-A receptor.

Chlorella

Chlorella is a genus of single-celled green freshwater algae, widely sold as a nutrient-dense dietary supplement and health food [1][2]. Its tiny spherical cells are packed with protein, chlorophyll, vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients, and the dried biomass is taken as tablets or powder [1][2]. First described in the late nineteenth century, Chlorella became well known as a model organism in photosynthesis research and as a proposed answer to food shortages; today it is studied for possible effects on cholesterol, blood sugar, and oxidative stress, though robust clinical proof of health benefits is limited [1][2][3].

Chlorophyll

Chlorophyll is the green pigment that plants, algae, and cyanobacteria use to capture light for photosynthesis [1]. Chemically it is built around a magnesium-containing ring related to the one in the blood pigment heme, and it absorbs red and blue light while reflecting green, which gives foliage its color [1]. Beyond its central biological role, chlorophyll and its water-soluble semisynthetic derivative chlorophyllin are used as food colorings and dietary supplements, and chlorophyllin has been studied for antioxidant and cancer-preventive effects [1][2][4].

Chondroitin

Chondroitin, usually supplied as chondroitin sulfate, is a sulfated glycosaminoglycan that forms a major structural component of cartilage and other connective tissues. Within the body it binds water inside the cartilage matrix, giving the tissue much of its resistance to compression. As an oral product it is marketed mainly for osteoarthritis, frequently combined with glucosamine, and in parts of Europe a pharmaceutical grade is classified as a prescription slow-acting osteoarthritis drug rather than a dietary supplement.

Cinnamon Extract

Cinnamon extract is a concentrated, standardized preparation made from the bark of Cinnamomum trees, intended to deliver the spice's active compounds in supplement form. It is used mainly for blood sugar and metabolic support, and depending on the extraction method it may concentrate the water-soluble polyphenols while reducing the fat-soluble compound coumarin. Clinical results for glucose control are modest and inconsistent.

CinSulin

CinSulin is a brand of water-extracted cinnamon supplement marketed for blood sugar support. It is produced by steeping cinnamon bark in water to concentrate the water-soluble compounds believed to influence glucose metabolism while leaving behind most of the fat-soluble coumarin. Small trials of this style of aqueous cinnamon extract have reported modest reductions in fasting blood glucose, although the broader evidence for cinnamon in diabetes remains mixed.

CLA

CLA (conjugated linoleic acid) is a family of naturally occurring fatty acids that are isomers of linoleic acid, found mainly in the meat and dairy of ruminant animals such as cattle and sheep. It is sold as a dietary supplement marketed for fat loss and body composition, based largely on animal studies. In humans the evidence is mixed, with only modest effects on body fat at best.

Collagen Type II

Type II collagen is the main structural protein of cartilage, the tough, flexible tissue that cushions joints, where it accounts for the great majority of the collagen in articular cartilage [1]. As a dietary supplement it is best known in an undenatured (native) form, often labelled UC-II and derived from chicken sternum cartilage, that is taken in small amounts for joint health and osteoarthritis [1][2]. Unlike hydrolyzed collagen, undenatured type II collagen is thought to work through the immune system rather than by supplying building blocks, and several trials have reported reduced knee pain and stiffness with its use [2][3].

Cordycepin

Cordycepin, also known as 3'-deoxyadenosine, is a nucleoside analog of adenosine in which the hydroxyl group at the 3' position of the sugar is replaced by hydrogen. It was first isolated in 1950 from the entomopathogenic fungus Cordyceps militaris, and it also occurs in related fungi and can now be produced synthetically. Because it closely resembles adenosine, cordycepin can slip into biochemical pathways in place of the natural nucleoside, an ability that underlies its studied antitumor, anti-inflammatory, and antiviral properties.

Crisaborole

Crisaborole (Eucrisa) is a boron-containing, non-steroidal topical PDE4 inhibitor, FDA-approved in December 2016 for mild-to-moderate atopic dermatitis (eczema) in patients aged three months and older. Two pivotal Phase 3 trials showed superior skin clearance and itch relief versus vehicle with a favorable safety profile. Honesty note: this is a skin drug with negligible systemic absorption and no CNS or cognition relevance whatsoever; it is included here only for PDE4-class completeness, not as a nootropic.

Dandelion Root

Dandelion root is the root of the common dandelion, Taraxacum officinale, a widespread perennial in the daisy family (Asteraceae). Long used in European, Asian, and other herbal traditions, the root serves as a bitter digestive tonic and mild diuretic and, when roasted and ground, as a caffeine-free coffee substitute. It contains bitter sesquiterpene compounds, triterpenes such as taraxasterol, phenolic acids, and the storage carbohydrate inulin. Most evidence for its traditional uses comes from laboratory and animal studies rather than clinical trials, and it is used as a food and herbal supplement.

Immunomodulator

Dapansutrile

Dapansutrile (OLT1177) is an orally active beta-sulfonyl nitrile small molecule that selectively inhibits the NLRP3 inflammasome, blocking maturation and release of the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-1 beta and interleukin-18. Developed by Olatec Therapeutics, it is investigational and has completed early-phase human trials in gout and systolic heart failure with a favorable safety profile.

Dasatinib

Dasatinib is a prescription anticancer drug of the tyrosine kinase inhibitor class, sold under the brand name Sprycel. It blocks the BCR-ABL fusion protein and Src-family tyrosine kinases and is used mainly to treat chronic myeloid leukemia and Philadelphia-chromosome-positive acute lymphoblastic leukemia, including cases that have become resistant to the older drug imatinib. Beyond oncology, it has drawn interest in aging research, where the combination of dasatinib and quercetin is studied as a senolytic that clears senescent cells. It is taken by mouth and was first approved in 2006.

Devil's Claw

Devil's claw is a herbal medicine prepared from the tuberous roots of Harpagophytum procumbens, a plant of the sesame family (Pedaliaceae) native to the semiarid regions of southern Africa. The remedy takes its name from the small hooked barbs that cover the plant's woody fruit, and its root preparations are valued chiefly for iridoid glycosides such as harpagoside. In traditional southern African medicine and in modern European phytotherapy, devil's claw is used mainly to ease musculoskeletal pain, particularly osteoarthritis and lower back pain. It is marketed as a dietary supplement or traditional herbal product rather than an approved pharmaceutical drug.

DGL

Deglycyrrhizinated licorice (DGL) is a processed form of licorice root, from the plant Glycyrrhiza glabra, from which most of the compound glycyrrhizin has been removed. Glycyrrhizin gives ordinary licorice its sweetness but, in excess, can raise blood pressure and lower blood potassium; stripping it out is meant to keep licorice's soothing effects on the digestive tract while avoiding those risks. DGL is used chiefly as a herbal supplement for heartburn, indigestion, and, historically, peptic ulcers, although the clinical evidence is old and mixed.

DHA

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is a long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid, designated 22:6(n-3), that serves as a major structural lipid in the brain, retina, and wider nervous system. It is obtained chiefly from fatty fish, fish oil, and algae-derived oils, and the human body can form only small amounts of it from the shorter omega-3 precursor alpha-linolenic acid. DHA is widely used in dietary supplements and infant formulas and is studied for roles in neurodevelopment, cognition, and cardiovascular health.

Difamilast

Difamilast (Moizerto) is a selective, PDE4B-preferring topical PDE4 inhibitor and the first PDE4 inhibitor approved in Japan (2021) for atopic dermatitis in patients aged two years and older. Two Phase 3 trials in adults and children showed clear eczema clearance superior to vehicle with a rapid antipruritic effect. Like crisaborole, it is a skin drug with negligible systemic exposure and no CNS or cognition evidence; included here for PDE4-class completeness, not as a nootropic.

Diosmin

Diosmin is a flavonoid, a plant-derived compound classed among the venoactive drugs, or phlebotonics, used to support vein and circulatory health. Chemically it is a glycoside of the flavone diosmetin and is obtained from citrus fruit, commonly by chemical conversion of the related flavonoid hesperidin. It is used, often together with hesperidin, to relieve the symptoms of chronic venous disease and hemorrhoids, such as leg swelling, aching, and bleeding. Diosmin is marketed as a prescription or over-the-counter drug in parts of Europe and as a dietary supplement or medical food in the United States.

Dong Quai

Dong quai is the dried root of Angelica sinensis, a flowering plant of the carrot family native to the mountains of China and East Asia, sometimes called female ginseng. It is one of the most widely used herbs in traditional Chinese medicine, where it has long been taken for women's health concerns such as menstrual and menopausal complaints and as a general blood tonic. Modern controlled studies have not shown it to be effective for these purposes, and it is sold in Western countries as a dietary supplement rather than an approved medicine. Because it contains natural coumarins, it can interact with blood-thinning drugs.

Echinacea

Echinacea is a genus of flowering plants in the daisy family (Asteraceae), native to North America, whose roots and aerial parts are widely used in herbal medicine. Preparations, most often from Echinacea purpurea, are marketed chiefly to prevent or shorten the common cold, though controlled trials have given inconsistent results. It is generally well tolerated and is sold as a dietary supplement rather than an approved medicine.

Enprofylline

Enprofylline (3-propylxanthine) is a xanthine bronchodilator developed in Sweden as an antiasthmatic agent that relaxes airway smooth muscle more potently than theophylline while lacking meaningful adenosine-receptor antagonism. Because it barely blocks adenosine receptors at therapeutic concentrations, it is largely free of the central-nervous-system stimulation, diuresis, gastric-acid secretion, cardiac stimulation and seizure liability that characterize theophylline and caffeine, and it has been used pharmacologically as a probe to distinguish adenosine-mediated from non-adenosine effects of the classic methylxanthines. Its bronchodilator activity is attributed chiefly to inhibition of cyclic-nucleotide phosphodiesterase and the resulting rise in intracellular cAMP. Enprofylline remained an investigational and regional agent and never achieved broad international clinical use.

Erinacine A

Erinacine A is the flagship cyathane diterpenoid produced by the mycelium of the culinary-medicinal mushroom Hericium erinaceus (Lion's Mane). It is the single most pharmacologically characterized Lion's Mane metabolite in the central nervous system, acting as a potent low-molecular-weight inducer of nerve growth factor (NGF) synthesis. Unlike the larger hericenones of the fruiting body, erinacine A is small and lipophilic enough to cross the blood brain barrier, giving it central activity after oral dosing in rodents. Preclinical work reports benefit across Alzheimer-type pathology, Parkinsonian models, ischemic stroke, metabolic-driven cognitive decline, and colorectal cancer models.

Erinacine C

Erinacine C is a cyathane diterpenoid from Hericium erinaceus mycelium and one of the more potent members of the erinacine series for inducing nerve growth factor synthesis. Beyond neurotrophic activity, it is distinguished by a well-characterized anti-neuroinflammatory profile: in microglial models it suppresses nitric oxide and pro-inflammatory cytokine production while activating the cytoprotective Nrf2/HO-1 pathway. It is investigated as a natural neuroprotective lead for conditions driven by microglial activation and oxidative stress.

Erucin

Erucin is a dietary isothiocyanate found in arugula (rocket) and other cruciferous vegetables, and is the reduced sulfide analog of sulforaphane. It donates hydrogen sulfide, activates Nrf2-linked antioxidant defenses and shows antiproliferative activity in preclinical cancer models; erucin and sulforaphane interconvert in the body.

Fennel

Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) is an aromatic flowering plant in the carrot family (Apiaceae), valued both as a food and as a traditional medicine. Its bulb, feathery leaves and anise-scented seeds are used in cooking, while its seeds and essential oil have featured in folk remedies for digestive and women's health complaints. The characteristic licorice-like aroma comes largely from the compound anethole.

Ferulic Acid

Ferulic acid is a naturally occurring plant compound, a type of hydroxycinnamic acid, best known as a dietary antioxidant. It is abundant in the cell walls of grains, seeds and other plants, where it is bound to fibers and helps give the walls their rigidity. It is widely used as an antioxidant ingredient in foods and in skincare products, often paired with vitamins C and E.

Fish Oil

Fish oil is an oil obtained from the tissues of oily fish and a popular dietary supplement. It is a source of the long-chain omega-3 fatty acids EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) and DHA (docosahexaenoic acid), which the body uses to make signaling molecules that influence inflammation. It is taken mainly for heart health and to lower high triglyceride levels, though the evidence for broad cardiovascular benefit is mixed.

Flurbiprofen

Flurbiprofen is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) in the same propionic-acid family as ibuprofen. It is used for pain, inflammation, and stiffness, comes as tablets, an eye drop (to keep the pupil open during surgery), and topical and lozenge forms for sore throat. Like other NSAIDs, it works by dialing down the body's production of prostaglandins, the messengers behind much inflammation, pain, and fever.

Fucoidan

Fucoidan is a sulfated polysaccharide, a large sugar-based molecule, found mainly in the cell walls of brown seaweeds such as kelp, wakame, and bladderwrack. Built largely from the sugar fucose studded with sulfate groups, it has been studied in the laboratory for a wide range of biological effects, including anticoagulant, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and antitumor activity. Despite this interest, high-quality human evidence remains limited and fucoidan is not an approved drug in any country. It is sold as a dietary supplement and used as a food and cosmetic ingredient.

Fucoxanthin

Fucoxanthin is a natural orange-brown pigment of the carotenoid family, found in brown seaweeds and in the microscopic algae called diatoms. In these organisms it is a light-harvesting pigment, capturing light energy for photosynthesis and giving brown algae their characteristic colour. It has been studied for a variety of possible health effects, most notably antioxidant activity and a role in fat metabolism, and it is sold as a dietary supplement made from brown seaweed. Its usefulness in people is limited by its low absorption from the gut.

Fulvic Acid

Fulvic acid is not a single chemical but a naturally occurring mixture of organic molecules, one of the components of the dark material called humic substances that forms as plant and microbial matter decomposes in soil, water, and sediment. It is distinguished from the related humic acid by its smaller molecules and its ability to dissolve in water across the whole range of acidity. Long used in agriculture as a soil conditioner, it is also sold as a dietary supplement with a variety of health claims and is a major component of the traditional substance shilajit. Human evidence for its supplemental benefits remains limited.

Galmic

Galmic is a macrocyclic nonpeptide galanin receptor agonist built on a rigid protein-surface-mimicking scaffold that displays galnon's pharmacophores in a fixed spatial arrangement. It has micromolar affinity for GalR1 and essentially no affinity for GalR2, and after systemic administration it blocks seizures, produces antidepressant-like effects, and reduces inflammatory pain behavior in rodents. Galmic is a preclinical chemical tool that helped establish that galanin receptors can be engaged by drug-like macrocycles. It has not advanced to human studies.

Gamma-Tocopherol

Gamma-tocopherol is one of the four tocopherol forms of vitamin E and the form that predominates in the diet in the United States. Chemically it is a fat-soluble antioxidant that differs from the better-known alpha-tocopherol by a single methyl group on its ring, a small difference that gives it distinctive chemical behavior [1][2]. It is plentiful in many plant seed oils and nuts and is also used as a food additive, designated E308.

GDF-11

GDF-11, or growth differentiation factor 11 (also called bone morphogenetic protein 11), is a secreted signaling protein of the transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta) superfamily. It is closely related to myostatin, sharing much of its structure and using the same receptors, and during embryonic development it helps pattern the skeleton and other tissues [1][5]. GDF-11 became widely known through contested research that proposed it as a blood-borne rejuvenation factor, a claim later studies called into question [2][5].

Genistein

Genistein is a naturally occurring isoflavone, a type of plant polyphenol that behaves as a phytoestrogen. It is found chiefly in soybeans and other legumes and was first isolated in 1899 from dyer's broom, the plant from which it takes its name. Because its structure resembles the hormone estradiol, it can interact with estrogen receptors, and it is also a well-studied inhibitor of tyrosine kinase enzymes [1][2].

Ginger

Ginger is the rhizome of Zingiber officinale, a flowering herbaceous perennial in the family Zingiberaceae that has served for millennia as both a culinary spice and a folk remedy. Native to Maritime Southeast Asia, where Austronesian peoples are thought to have first domesticated it, the plant is prized for its pungent, aromatic root, whose flavor derives chiefly from gingerols and related shogaols. Ginger is used fresh, dried, powdered, pickled, or candied, and among its many traditional uses it is most studied for easing nausea.

Ginkgolide B

Ginkgolide B is a diterpene lactone, one of the terpene trilactones found in the leaves and roots of the ginkgo tree (Ginkgo biloba). It has a complex cage-like structure built from six five-membered rings and a distinctive tert-butyl group, and it occurs in only small amounts within ginkgo extracts. In pharmacology it is best known as a potent and selective antagonist of platelet-activating factor, a property that has made it a valuable research tool and a candidate in studies of inflammation and neurological conditions.

GLA

Gamma-linolenic acid, abbreviated GLA, is an omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid found in a small number of plant seed oils, notably evening primrose, borage, and blackcurrant seed oils. The body can also make it from the common dietary fat linoleic acid, and it serves as a precursor to compounds with anti-inflammatory activity [1][2]. It is sold as a dietary supplement and has been studied for skin conditions such as eczema and for inflammatory disorders including rheumatoid arthritis [2][3].

Goralatide

Goralatide is the drug name for Ac-SDKP (N-acetyl-Ser-Asp-Lys-Pro), an endogenous acetylated tetrapeptide the body makes by trimming the N-terminus of thymosin beta-4. It has two jobs research cares about: it holds blood-forming stem cells in a resting state (which shielded them during chemo in early trials), and it acts as a natural brake on tissue fibrosis and inflammation.

GTS-21

GTS-21, also known as DMXB-A, is an investigational drug that acts as a selective partial agonist at the alpha-7 subtype of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. It is a synthetic derivative of anabaseine, a natural compound found in certain marine worms, and was developed as a candidate treatment for the cognitive problems of conditions such as schizophrenia and Alzheimer's disease [1][2]. Despite encouraging early laboratory results, it has not shown clear clinical benefit and has not advanced beyond mid-stage trials [2].

He Shou Wu

He Shou Wu, also known as fo-ti or tuber fleeceflower, is the processed root of Reynoutria multiflora (formerly Polygonum multiflorum), a climbing plant of the buckwheat family, Polygonaceae, native to China. It is one of the most widely used tonic herbs in traditional Chinese medicine, historically taken for hair color, vitality, and longevity. Modern attention has focused both on its bioactive stilbenes and anthraquinones and on well-documented cases of liver injury linked to its use.

HNG (S14G-Humanin)

HNG is a synthetic potency-boosted analog of humanin, a 24-amino-acid peptide encoded within mitochondrial DNA. Swapping one residue (serine to glycine at position 14) makes it roughly a thousand times more cytoprotective than natural humanin in cell assays, which is why almost all animal work on the humanin pathway uses HNG rather than the wild-type peptide. It is studied for protecting neurons against amyloid-beta and ischemic insults, and for metabolic and insulin-sensitizing effects.

HU-308

HU-308 is a synthetic cannabinoid that acts as a highly selective agonist of the type-2 cannabinoid receptor (CB2), the peripheral and immune-cell arm of the endocannabinoid system. First reported in 1999 by Raphael Mechoulam's group at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, it was designed as a nonpsychotropic probe: it binds CB2 with nanomolar affinity (Ki ~22.7 nM) while showing essentially no affinity for the centrally expressed CB1 receptor (Ki > 10 microM), so it produces none of the tetrahydrocannabinol-type behavioral effects mediated by CB1. Through CB2 activation it lowers blood pressure, blocks defecation, and exerts anti-inflammatory and peripheral analgesic activity, effects reversed by the CB2 antagonist SR-144528 but not by the CB1 antagonist rimonabant. Across preclinical models it dampens pro-inflammatory cytokine release from macrophages and microglia, and it has been studied in acute lung injury, collagen-induced arthritis, endothelial activation, Parkinsonian neuroinflammation, and proliferative vitreoretinopathy. HU-308 remains an investigational research compound and is not an approved drug.

Human Relaxin-2

Relaxin-2 is the principal circulating form of relaxin in humans, a small peptide hormone belonging to the insulin and relaxin superfamily. Produced mainly by the corpus luteum, and also by the breast, placenta, and prostate, it plays a central part in the physiological adaptations of pregnancy, including widening of blood vessels and remodeling of reproductive tissues. A recombinant version, serelaxin, was investigated as a treatment for acute heart failure, though large trials did not confirm a clinical benefit.

Humic Acid

Humic acid is one of the main fractions of humic substances, the dark, complex organic material that forms when plant and microbial matter decomposes in soil, peat, and coal. It is defined operationally as the portion of humic matter that dissolves under alkaline conditions but precipitates in strong acid. Long valued in agriculture as a soil conditioner, humic acid has also been the subject of biomedical research into anti-inflammatory and antiviral activities, and it appears in some dietary supplements alongside fulvic acid.

Hydroxytyrosol

Hydroxytyrosol is a phenolic phytochemical found in olives, olive oil and olive leaves, valued chiefly for its strong antioxidant activity. Chemically a catechol-type phenylethanoid, it is one of the main polyphenols behind the health reputation of the Mediterranean diet. It is sold as a dietary supplement and food ingredient and is a subject of research into cardiovascular and anti-inflammatory effects.

Hypericin

Hypericin is a red-colored natural pigment found in St. John's Wort (Hypericum perforatum), classified chemically as a naphthodianthrone (a phenanthroperylene quinone). Long thought to be the herb's antidepressant ingredient, it is now viewed as a minor contributor to that effect, with attention having shifted to hyperforin. Its most distinctive property is strong light sensitivity, which has made it a focus of research as a photosensitizer for photodynamic therapy and as a fluorescent marker in cancer diagnosis.

I3C

I3C (indole-3-carbinol) is a plant compound formed when cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli, cabbage and Brussels sprouts are chopped or chewed. It arises from the breakdown of the glucosinolate glucobrassicin and, in the acidic stomach, condenses into related molecules including DIM (3,3'-diindolylmethane). It is sold as a dietary supplement and is studied chiefly for its effects on estrogen metabolism and its potential to help prevent certain cancers.

Immunoglobulins

Immunoglobulins, also called antibodies, are Y-shaped proteins made by plasma cells that the immune system uses to recognize and neutralize bacteria, viruses, and other foreign targets. As a medicine, pooled human immunoglobulin prepared from the plasma of thousands of donors is given to replace missing antibodies in immunodeficiency and to calm the immune system in a range of autoimmune and inflammatory conditions. It can be delivered into a vein or under the skin and appears on the World Health Organization list of essential medicines.

Kaempferol

Kaempferol is a naturally occurring flavonoid, specifically a flavonol, found widely across the plant kingdom and in many common foods such as kale, broccoli, onions, tea, and berries. Chemically it is a yellow crystalline solid known as 3,4',5,7-tetrahydroxyflavone, and it is one of the main flavonols in the human diet [1]. It has been studied extensively in the laboratory for antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and other biological activities [1][2].

Immunomodulator

KCF-18

KCF-18 is an 18-residue synthetic peptide designed in silico from the binding regions of three cytokine receptors (TNFR1, IL-1R, IL-6R). It works as a soluble decoy that grabs the proinflammatory cytokines TNF-alpha, IL-1beta and IL-6 before they can dock on their own receptors, dampening downstream inflammation. It is a preclinical anti-inflammatory research peptide, not a nootropic or a CNS compound.

Laminarin

Laminarin is a storage polysaccharide, a type of β-glucan, that brown algae such as kelp accumulate as an energy reserve. It is built from chains of glucose joined mainly by β-1,3 bonds with occasional β-1,6 branches. Abundant in the ocean and important to the marine carbon cycle, laminarin has drawn interest for a range of biological activities, including effects on the immune system and the gut, and it is studied as a marine-derived ingredient rather than an approved drug.

Limonene

Limonene is a colorless liquid hydrocarbon classified as a cyclic monoterpene, best known as the main aromatic compound in the oil of citrus peel. Its more common natural form, D-limonene, has a sweet orange scent and is used widely as a flavoring, a fragrance, and a solvent. It occurs throughout the plant world and is one of the most abundant terpenes in nature.

Linalool

Linalool is a naturally occurring terpene alcohol found in the essential oils of lavender, coriander, and hundreds of other aromatic plants. A colorless, fragrant liquid, it is one of the most widely used scent ingredients in perfumes, soaps, and household products, and it also serves as a food flavoring. It has been studied for calming, anxiety-reducing effects when inhaled.

Liposomal Vitamin C

Liposomal vitamin C is a dietary-supplement form of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) in which the vitamin is packaged inside microscopic fat bubbles called liposomes. The encapsulation is intended to protect the vitamin as it passes through the digestive tract and to improve how much of it reaches the bloodstream compared with ordinary vitamin C. Vitamin C itself is an essential nutrient and antioxidant that the body cannot make on its own.

Lumbrokinase

Lumbrokinase is a group of fibrinolytic enzymes extracted from earthworms, most often species such as Lumbricus rubellus and members of the Eisenia genus. These serine proteases break down fibrin, the mesh protein that holds blood clots together, which is the basis for their study as antithrombotic agents. Dried earthworm has a long history in traditional East Asian medicine, and modern lumbrokinase preparations are sold as dietary supplements in several countries.

Lunasin

Lunasin is a naturally occurring peptide of forty-three amino acids first isolated from soybean seed. It also occurs in cereal grains such as barley, wheat, and rye, and in a few other seeds. Since the late 1990s it has been studied chiefly for possible cancer-preventive, cholesterol-lowering, and anti-inflammatory effects, with most attention paid to its apparent ability to influence how genes are switched on and off by altering histone proteins.

Luteolin

Luteolin is a naturally occurring flavone, a subclass of flavonoid, that carries a yellow color and is present in many plants used as foods and herbs, including celery, parsley, thyme, chamomile, and oregano. It has been studied in the laboratory for antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activity, although solid human clinical evidence is limited. It was first isolated in 1829 from the dye plant Reseda luteola.

Lycopene

Lycopene is a bright red carotenoid pigment found most abundantly in tomatoes and other red fruits such as watermelon and pink grapefruit. Chemically it is a tetraterpene hydrocarbon, and unlike some carotenoids it has no vitamin A activity. It is valued as a dietary antioxidant and as a natural food colorant, and it has been studied for possible roles in prostate and cardiovascular health, though the clinical evidence is mixed.

Maitake

Maitake (Grifola frondosa) is an edible and medicinal mushroom native to temperate forests of East Asia and North America, where it grows in large clustered fruiting bodies at the base of trees. It is valued both as a culinary mushroom and as a source of bioactive polysaccharides, especially beta-glucans, that have been studied for immune-modulating and antitumor effects [1][3]. A partially purified extract known as maitake D-fraction has been the focus of much of the medicinal research [2][3].

Marshmallow Root

Marshmallow root is the root of Althaea officinalis, a perennial herb in the mallow family (Malvaceae) native to Europe, western Asia, and North Africa, used in traditional herbal medicine as a soothing, or demulcent, remedy. Its roots are especially rich in mucilage, a gel-forming mixture of polysaccharides that coats and soothes irritated mucous membranes, which is the basis for its long use for cough, sore throat, and digestive irritation [1]. The same mucilage historically gave its name to the marshmallow confection, though modern marshmallows no longer contain the plant.

Matrine

Matrine is a tetracyclic quinolizidine alkaloid obtained mainly from plants of the genus Sophora, especially the roots of Sophora flavescens, known in Chinese medicine as Kushen. It is one of the principal active constituents of these long-used herbal materials and has been investigated for a wide range of pharmacological effects, including anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and antiparasitic activities [1][3]. It occurs alongside the closely related alkaloid oxymatrine, and although widely studied in the laboratory, its clinical use is constrained by questions about toxicity and bioavailability [1].

Immunomodulator

MCC950

MCC950 is a potent, highly selective small-molecule inhibitor of the NLRP3 inflammasome that blocks canonical and noncanonical NLRP3 activation at nanomolar concentrations, reducing interleukin-1 beta and interleukin-18 release. Originally discovered at Pfizer as CP-456773 (CRID3), it is one of the most widely used research tools for probing NLRP3 biology but remains preclinical and is not approved for human use.

Topical Formula

Menthol

Menthol is a naturally occurring organic compound of the monoterpenoid class, a waxy crystalline secondary alcohol best known for the cooling sensation it produces. It is obtained mainly from the essential oils of mint plants such as peppermint and corn mint, and it is also manufactured synthetically on a large scale. Widely used in topical pain relievers, cough and cold remedies, oral care products, confections, and tobacco, menthol produces its characteristic coolness by activating the cold-sensing TRPM8 receptors of sensory nerves.

MitoQ

MitoQ, known chemically as mitoquinone or mitoquinol mesylate, is a mitochondria-targeted antioxidant derived from coenzyme Q10. It couples the antioxidant quinone of coenzyme Q10 to a positively charged triphenylphosphonium ion, a modification that drives the molecule to accumulate inside mitochondria, where much of the cell's harmful reactive oxygen species is generated. Developed in New Zealand in the late 1990s, it is sold as a dietary supplement and has been studied in a range of conditions linked to oxidative stress and aging.

MitoTEMPO

MitoTEMPO is a mitochondria-targeted superoxide dismutase mimetic created by conjugating the nitroxide antioxidant TEMPO to a lipophilic triphenylphosphonium cation. The positively charged phosphonium moiety drives the molecule to accumulate several-hundred-fold inside the negatively charged mitochondrial matrix, where the nitroxide catalytically scavenges superoxide and alkyl radicals at their principal source. It is one of the most widely used experimental tools for testing whether mitochondrial reactive oxygen species drive a given disease process, and it has shown therapeutic effects in preclinical models of hypertension, ferroptosis, and inflammation. It is a research reagent rather than a clinical drug.

Myricetin

Myricetin is a naturally occurring flavonoid of the flavonol subclass, a plant pigment found in many fruits, vegetables, berries, teas and wines. Closely related in structure to quercetin, it is studied chiefly for antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity and a broad range of other effects observed in the laboratory. It is not a drug but a dietary compound, consumed in ordinary foods and sold as a supplement.

NAX 810-2

NAX 810-2 is a second-generation galanin analog engineered to prefer galanin receptor 2 over receptor 1, developed to preserve the anticonvulsant and analgesic benefits of galanin signaling while avoiding the hyperglycemia caused by GalR1-preferring predecessors. It has roughly fifteen-fold selectivity for GalR2, blocks seizures in multiple rodent models after intravenous dosing, and is analgesic across inflammatory and neuropathic pain assays. Crucially, it does not impair insulin secretion or raise growth hormone, giving it a cleaner metabolic profile than NAX-5055. It was framed as a first-in-class analgesic and antiseizure candidate.

OL-135

OL-135 is a reversible, competitive fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) inhibitor of the alpha-ketoheterocycle class, developed by the Boger laboratory at The Scripps Research Institute as a chemical tool to raise endogenous anandamide. Built around an electrophilic alpha-ketooxazole warhead (a pyridyl-activated ketone), it inhibits FAAH in the low-nanomolar range and is selective over other serine hydrolases. Unlike the irreversible carbamate inhibitor URB597, OL-135 binds the enzyme reversibly, forming a deprotonated hemiketal with the catalytic serine that mimics the tetrahedral reaction intermediate. In rodent studies it elevates brain anandamide and produces cannabinoid-receptor-mediated analgesia, anti-allodynia, anti-pruritic and anti-inflammatory effects without the overt psychoactivity of direct CB1 agonists. OL-135 remains an investigational research compound; it never advanced to human clinical trials, but it served as the lead scaffold for a large family of orally active, long-acting FAAH inhibitors.

Oleic Acid

Oleic acid is a monounsaturated omega-9 fatty acid and one of the most abundant fatty acids found in nature. It is the principal fat in olive oil and occurs widely in other vegetable oils and animal fats, and it is also the most common fatty acid stored in human fat tissue. As a dietary fat it has been studied for its effects on blood cholesterol and cardiovascular health, and it is a central component of the Mediterranean diet. Beyond nutrition it has many industrial uses, from soaps to pharmaceutical formulations.

Oleoylethanolamide

Oleoylethanolamide (OEA) is a naturally occurring lipid molecule that acts as a satiety signal in the body. It is the ethanolamide of oleic acid, a member of the fatty acid ethanolamide family that also includes the endocannabinoid anandamide, though OEA works through different pathways. Produced in the small intestine in response to eating fat, it reduces appetite and food intake mainly by activating the nuclear receptor PPAR-alpha. It has been studied extensively in relation to feeding, body weight, and obesity, and is sold as a dietary supplement.

Oleuropein

Oleuropein is a phenolic compound of the secoiridoid class and one of the main polyphenols of the olive tree. It is found in olive leaves, in olives, and in smaller amounts in olive oil, and it is chiefly responsible for the bitter taste of unprocessed olives. Structurally it combines the antioxidant hydroxytyrosol with elenolic acid and a sugar unit. It has been studied for a range of biological activities, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cardiovascular effects, and is regarded as a dietary and research compound rather than an approved medicine.

Olive Leaf Extract

Olive leaf extract is a herbal preparation made from the leaves of the olive tree, Olea europaea, and sold as a dietary supplement. The leaves are rich in polyphenols, above all oleuropein and its relative hydroxytyrosol, which are considered the extract's main active constituents. Olive leaves have a long history in Mediterranean folk medicine, where they were brewed as a tea for fever and other complaints. Modern research, including several small clinical trials, has examined the extract mainly for effects on blood pressure, blood lipids, and blood sugar, though the overall evidence remains limited.

Omaveloxolone

Omaveloxolone (RTA-408, brand name Skyclarys) is an orally active synthetic oleanane triterpenoid that pharmacologically activates the master antioxidant transcription factor Nrf2 while suppressing NF-kappaB-driven inflammation. By restoring Nrf2 signaling, which is chronically suppressed in Friedreich ataxia, it targets the intertwined oxidative, inflammatory, and bioenergetic deficits that impair mitochondrial ATP production. It became the first therapy approved for Friedreich ataxia in the United States after the MOXIe trial demonstrated meaningful improvement in neurological function. It represents the mitochondrial-longevity strategy of upregulating endogenous antioxidant defenses rather than supplying an exogenous antioxidant.

PACAP

PACAP, short for pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide, is a naturally occurring neuropeptide that acts as a hormone, neurotransmitter, and neuromodulator. Encoded by the ADCYAP1 gene and closely related to vasoactive intestinal peptide, it signals through G protein-coupled receptors to raise cellular cAMP and takes part in the stress response, circadian timing, and neuroprotection. It has become a prominent target in migraine research, since infusing PACAP can trigger migraine-like attacks in susceptible people.

Pal-GHK (Palmitoyl Tripeptide-1)

Pal-GHK, also known as palmitoyl tripeptide-1, is a synthetic cosmetic peptide made by attaching a palmitic acid chain to the human tripeptide GHK (glycyl-L-histidyl-L-lysine). The fatty acid tail makes the peptide more lipophilic so it can better penetrate the skin, where GHK-based signals are known to stimulate collagen and support extracellular matrix repair. It is used as a signaling ingredient in anti-aging skincare rather than as a medicine.

Palmitoyl Tetrapeptide-7

Palmitoyl Tetrapeptide-7, sold under the name Rigin, is a synthetic cosmetic peptide; a four-amino-acid chain (glycine-glutamine-proline-arginine) with a palmitic acid tail to help it settle into the skin. It is used topically as an anti-aging and anti-inflammatory skincare ingredient, marketed on the idea that it dampens a signaling molecule called interleukin-6. It is a cosmetic ingredient, and the strongest data comes from manufacturer testing rather than large independent trials.

Papain

Papain is a cysteine protease enzyme obtained from the latex of the papaya plant (Carica papaya). It cleaves proteins by using a reactive cysteine residue paired with a histidine in its active site, giving it broad protein-digesting activity. Long used as a meat tenderizer, papain also appears in food processing, cosmetics, wound-care preparations, and laboratory work, and it is one of the classic model enzymes for studying how cysteine proteases function.

Parthenolide

Parthenolide is a naturally occurring sesquiterpene lactone found chiefly in the herb feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium). It is regarded as one of the main active constituents behind feverfew's traditional use for migraine, and in the laboratory it is known for blocking the inflammatory signaling protein NF-kB. It has drawn considerable research interest for anticancer activity, including against cancer stem cells, though poor water solubility has limited its development as a drug.

Peppermint Oil

Peppermint oil is the essential oil distilled from peppermint (Mentha x piperita), an aromatic hybrid of watermint and spearmint. Rich in menthol, it is used as a flavoring and fragrance and, in medicine, most notably as an antispasmodic remedy for irritable bowel syndrome, usually taken as enteric-coated capsules. It produces the familiar cooling sensation of mint and has a long history in both cooking and traditional herbal practice.

PF-3845

PF-3845 is a highly selective, covalent fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) inhibitor developed by Pfizer as a pharmacological tool to augment endocannabinoid signaling in vivo. By carbamylating the serine nucleophile of FAAH, the enzyme responsible for degrading the endocannabinoid anandamide, PF-3845 raises brain and peripheral levels of anandamide and related N-acylethanolamines for up to 24 hours after a single dose. It is widely used in preclinical neuroscience to probe endocannabinoid contributions to pain, inflammation, anxiety, and nausea, and remains an investigational research compound rather than an approved drug.

Phenethyl Isothiocyanate

Phenethyl isothiocyanate (PEITC) is a dietary isothiocyanate released from the glucosinolate gluconasturtiin in cruciferous vegetables such as watercress. It activates the Nrf2 antioxidant pathway, induces phase II detoxification enzymes and is studied as a cancer chemopreventive phytochemical.

Phloretin

Phloretin is a dihydrochalcone, a naturally occurring plant phenol found in apples, apple tree leaves, and the Manchurian apricot. It is the aglycone of phlorizin, meaning the sugar-free core of that better-known apple compound, and it is studied chiefly as an antioxidant and as an inhibitor of glucose transport across cell membranes. Phloretin appears as an ingredient in some skincare products and is a subject of laboratory research, but it is not an approved medicine.

Piceatannol

Piceatannol is a stilbenoid, a naturally occurring plant polyphenol closely related to resveratrol, from which it differs by a single extra hydroxyl group. It is found in grapes, red wine, passion fruit seeds, and other plants, and the body can also form it from resveratrol. Studied mainly in the laboratory, it has drawn interest for antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities and as an inhibitor of the enzyme Syk kinase, but it remains a research compound rather than an approved medicine.

Neuroprotection

Piclamilast

Piclamilast (RP-73401) is a highly potent, subnanomolar pan-PDE4 inhibitor used mainly as a pharmacological reference tool and high-affinity rolipram-binding-site ligand. It was explored for COPD and asthma but never developed. Its most cognition-relevant finding is a 2022 mouse study in which post-ischemia piclamilast was neuroprotective and preserved memory through CREB, an effect abolished by a CREB inhibitor. There is no human data.

Piperine

Piperine is the principal pungent alkaloid of black pepper (Piper nigrum) and long pepper (Piper longum), responsible for the spice's biting taste through activation of the capsaicin receptor TRPV1; structural studies show it occupies the same ligand-binding pocket as capsaicin but adopts a distinct binding pose, acting as a comparatively weak agonist. Its most exploited pharmacological property is bioenhancement, since it inhibits hepatic and intestinal glucuronidation as well as cytochrome P450 3A4 and the efflux transporter P-glycoprotein, thereby slowing first-pass metabolism and raising systemic exposure of co-administered compounds; the classic demonstration reported a roughly 2000 percent increase in curcumin bioavailability in humans. Piperine also inhibits monoamine oxidase and has shown antidepressant-like, anticonvulsant, and neuroprotective activity in animal models, with anti-seizure effects mediated through TRPV1. It is widely marketed as a standardized extract for use alongside poorly absorbed nutraceuticals.

PNU-120596

PNU-120596 is a selective type II positive allosteric modulator of the alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor; it raises channel open probability and destabilizes receptor desensitization to amplify cholinergic signaling without directly activating the receptor. It is an investigational research tool used to probe alpha7 mechanisms in cognition, schizophrenia and inflammation, and is not approved for human use.

Pomegranate Extract

Pomegranate extract is a concentrated preparation made from the fruit, peel or arils of the pomegranate (Punica granatum), valued for its high content of polyphenols. Its most studied constituents are the ellagitannins, especially the punicalagins, together with ellagic acid and the anthocyanin pigments that give pomegranate its red colour. Sold as a dietary supplement in capsule, powder and liquid forms, it is promoted for antioxidant and cardiovascular support, although the strength of the clinical evidence differs by preparation and outcome.

Protease

A protease is an enzyme that breaks down proteins by cleaving the peptide bonds that link amino acids together, a process known as proteolysis. Proteases occur in all living things, where they carry out tasks ranging from digesting food to controlling blood clotting, immune responses, and cell signalling. They are grouped into several families according to the chemical machinery in their active site, and outside the body they are used in detergents, food processing, and as digestive enzyme supplements.

Punicalagins

Punicalagins are large polyphenol molecules of the ellagitannin type, found most abundantly in the pomegranate. They are among the compounds responsible for the strong antioxidant activity of pomegranate juice and peel, and in the body they are broken down into ellagic acid and then into gut-derived metabolites called urolithins. Research on punicalagins and their metabolites has examined antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cardiovascular effects, though most of the evidence comes from laboratory and animal studies.

Pycnogenol

Pycnogenol is a trademarked dietary supplement made from the bark of the French maritime pine, Pinus pinaster, standardized to a high content of procyanidins. Rich in plant polyphenols that act as antioxidants, it is marketed for a wide range of conditions from circulation problems to skin health. Independent reviews of the clinical trials, however, have concluded that the evidence is not strong enough to confirm a benefit for any specific disorder. It is sold as a supplement rather than an approved medicine.

Quercetin Phytosome

Quercetin Phytosome is a formulated version of the dietary flavonoid quercetin in which the molecule is combined with phospholipids to make it far easier for the body to absorb. Ordinary quercetin is only minimally taken up when swallowed, and the phytosome delivery system was developed to overcome this limitation, raising blood levels of quercetin many times over. Sold as a dietary supplement, it has been studied mainly as a more bioavailable way to deliver quercetin's antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, including in trials during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Rehmannia

Rehmannia (Rehmannia glutinosa), known in Chinese as dihuang, is a flowering plant traditionally counted among the fundamental herbs of Chinese medicine. Its root, used fresh, dried, or steam-processed, is a staple of many classical herbal formulas. Modern chemical work has identified iridoid glycosides such as catalpol among its main constituents.

Rhoifolin

Rhoifolin is a naturally occurring flavone glycoside, chemically apigenin 7-O-neohesperidoside, belonging to the flavonoid group of plant compounds. It was first isolated from the leaves of Rhus succedanea, which gave it its name, and is found in a range of plants including citrus species. Laboratory research has reported antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and other bioactivities, though it has not been developed into a medicine.

Roflumilast

Roflumilast is a selective PDE4 inhibitor approved as a once-daily oral anti-inflammatory for severe COPD (Daliresp, Daxas) and as a topical treatment for psoriasis and other skin conditions (Zoryve). By blocking PDE4 it raises intracellular cAMP, calming inflammatory cells and, in the brain, boosting the CREB-to-BDNF signaling tied to learning and memory. That neuro angle has turned low, sub-emetic microdoses of roughly 100-250 micrograms into a genuinely intriguing but still preliminary nootropic candidate.

Rolipram

Rolipram (ZK 62711) is the prototypical PDE4 inhibitor and the reference compound for the entire class. Developed by Schering as an antidepressant in the 1980s, it was abandoned over severe emesis but went on to become the single most-studied molecule in the cAMP/CREB-enhances-memory literature. It reliably converts early- to late-long-term potentiation and rescues memory across Alzheimer, aging and Rubinstein-Taybi models, making it the yardstick every newer PDE4 memory drug is measured against.

Rose Hip Extract

Rose hip is the fruit of the rose plant, the small berry-like structure left behind after the flower fades, and rose hip extract is the concentrated preparation made from it. The fruit of species such as Rosa canina is rich in vitamin C, carotenoids, polyphenols, and a fatty acid derivative known as GOPO. Powders and extracts made from rose hip are used as foods and dietary supplements, and they have been studied mainly for joint pain in osteoarthritis.

Rosmarinic Acid

Rosmarinic acid is a natural polyphenol, specifically an ester of caffeic acid, found in many culinary herbs. It is abundant in plants of the mint and borage families, including rosemary, lemon balm, sage, and basil, where it appears to serve as a defensive compound. Valued for its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, it is used as a food flavoring and preservative, in cosmetics, and as a dietary supplement.

Rutin

Rutin is a flavonoid, specifically a glycoside formed from the flavonol quercetin joined to the sugar rutinose. It occurs widely in plants, with notably high levels in buckwheat, and is also found in citrus fruits, tea, apples, and many vegetables. Sold as a dietary supplement and used in some vasoprotective preparations, it is studied mainly for its antioxidant properties and its possible effects on veins and capillaries.

Sandalwood

Sandalwood is a class of fragrant, fine-grained wood, together with the essential oil distilled from it, obtained from hemiparasitic trees of the genus Santalum, most notably Indian sandalwood (Santalum album). Prized for a soft, warm, long-lasting woody scent, it has been used for millennia in perfumery, incense, carving, and the religious traditions of Asia. Its aroma comes chiefly from two isomers of the sesquiterpene santalol, which are also the focus of research into the oil's anti-inflammatory and other biological effects.

Saw Palmetto

Saw palmetto is a lipidosterolic extract of the berries of Serenoa repens, a fan palm of the southeastern United States, and ranks among the most widely used herbal supplements for prostate health. Its proposed mechanism is genuinely pharmacological: in vitro the extract inhibits both isoenzymes of 5-alpha-reductase, the enzyme that converts testosterone to the more potent dihydrotestosterone, and interferes with androgen binding in prostate cells, alongside anti-inflammatory effects. Despite this rationale, rigorous placebo-controlled trials, including the NEJM STEP study and the dose-escalation CAMUS trial, and successive Cochrane reviews have generally found the standardized extract no more effective than placebo for lower urinary tract symptoms of benign prostatic hyperplasia. Evidence for certain proprietary hexanic preparations remains debated, and the extract is consistently well tolerated with minimal impact on sexual function.

Scutellaria

Scutellaria, commonly called skullcap, is a large genus of flowering plants in the mint family (Lamiaceae), several species of which are used in herbal medicine. The two most important are Chinese, or Baikal, skullcap (Scutellaria baicalensis), whose root Huang Qin is a staple of traditional Chinese medicine, and American skullcap (Scutellaria lateriflora), traditionally used for anxiety and nervous conditions. Their effects are attributed largely to flavonoids such as baicalin, baicalein, and wogonin.

Seladelpar

Seladelpar lysine dihydrate (formerly MBX-8025; marketed as Livdelzi) is an orally administered, selective agonist of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta (PPAR-delta) approved in 2024 for primary biliary cholangitis. By activating PPAR-delta in hepatocytes, cholangiocytes, and immune cells, it downregulates bile acid synthesis and dampens hepatic inflammation, lowering alkaline phosphatase and other markers of bile-duct injury. In the phase 3 RESPONSE trial it produced significant biochemical responses and, notably, reduced pruritus in parallel with falling serum levels of interleukin-31, the itch-associated cytokine, offering a mechanistic explanation for its antipruritic effect that distinguishes it from earlier therapies. It is used for adults with primary biliary cholangitis, either combined with ursodeoxycholic acid when that agent is insufficient or as monotherapy in patients who cannot tolerate it.

Selenomethionine

Selenomethionine is the organic, amino acid form of selenium, in which a selenium atom replaces the sulfur of the amino acid methionine. It is the principal form of selenium found in plant foods such as cereal grains, Brazil nuts, and legumes, and it is the selenium compound most commonly used in dietary supplements. Because the body cannot fully distinguish it from methionine, it is readily absorbed and can be incorporated directly into proteins, giving it high bioavailability.

Serrapeptase

Serrapeptase, also called serratiopeptidase, is a proteolytic enzyme originally isolated from bacteria (Serratia species) found in the gut of the silkworm, where it helps the emerging moth dissolve its cocoon. It is sold as a dietary supplement and promoted for anti-inflammatory, anti-swelling, and pain-relieving effects and for thinning mucus. Although it has been used clinically in Japan and parts of Europe, the supporting evidence is limited and generally of low quality.

Shiitake

Shiitake (Lentinula edodes) is an edible mushroom native to East Asia and mainland Southeast Asia that is now cultivated and eaten worldwide. Prized as a culinary ingredient, it also has a long history in East Asian traditional medicine and is studied for bioactive constituents such as the polysaccharide lentinan. It ranks among the most widely produced cultivated mushrooms globally.

Silybin

Silybin, also called silibinin, is a flavonolignan that is the principal active constituent of silymarin, a standardized extract of milk thistle (Silybum marianum). It is used and studied mainly for liver protection, including as an intravenous antidote for poisoning by Amanita mushrooms and as an adjunct in chronic liver disease. Its clinical evidence is mixed, and poor water solubility limits the absorption of oral forms.

Slippery Elm

Slippery elm (Ulmus rubra) is a deciduous tree native to eastern and central North America whose inner bark has a long history of use as an herbal demulcent. When mixed with water the powdered inner bark forms a soothing mucilage that has traditionally been taken for sore throat, cough, and digestive complaints. It is sold as an over-the-counter demulcent in lozenges, powders, and teas, and is considered generally recognized as safe.

Sodium Ascorbate

Sodium ascorbate is the sodium salt of ascorbic acid (vitamin C), a mineral form of the vitamin that is less acidic than plain ascorbic acid. It is used as a dietary supplement, as a food additive (E301) that acts as an antioxidant and preservative, and as a buffered source of vitamin C for people who find the acid form irritating. Like all forms of vitamin C, it supplies ascorbate, an essential nutrient and antioxidant.

Sonlicromanol

Sonlicromanol (KH176) is an orally active, blood-brain-barrier-penetrant small molecule derived from the vitamin E analog Trolox, developed specifically for inherited mitochondrial disease. It acts as a dual redox modulator, directly scavenging reactive oxygen species and reactivating the peroxiredoxin-thioredoxin antioxidant system, and its active metabolite KH176m additionally suppresses inflammatory prostaglandin production. The compound has advanced through phase 2 clinical trials in adults and children with genetically confirmed mitochondrial disease, including the m.3243A>G mutation that causes MELAS. It is one of the most clinically mature purpose-built mitochondrial protectants of its generation.

Spexin

Spexin, also called neuropeptide Q, is a small 14-amino-acid peptide discovered by bioinformatics and later shown to be an endogenous ligand of galanin receptors 2 and 3, part of a shared spexin, galanin, and kisspeptin family. It is broadly expressed across endocrine and nervous tissue and functions as a regulatory adipokine, with circulating levels reduced in obesity and linked to metabolic and inflammatory markers. Spexin also stimulates gastrointestinal motility through galanin receptor 2 and has been associated with appetite, cardiovascular, reproductive, and mood-related functions. It is an endogenous peptide of growing translational interest.

Spirulina

Spirulina is a dietary supplement made from the dried biomass of cyanobacteria, single-celled organisms often called blue-green algae, chiefly species of the genus Arthrospira. Rich in protein, B vitamins, iron, and the blue pigment phycocyanin, it has a long history of use as a food and is sold today as powder, tablets, and capsules. Marketed for a wide array of health benefits, it has modest supporting evidence for effects on blood lipids and body weight, while broader claims are not well established and contamination of some products is a recognized concern.

Stinging Nettle

Stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) is a herbaceous perennial plant in the family Urticaceae, well known for the stinging hairs on its leaves and stems. Long used as a food and in traditional medicine, its cooked young leaves are eaten as a nutritious green, while extracts of its root and leaf are taken as herbal remedies. The best-studied medicinal use is for the urinary symptoms of an enlarged prostate, though the overall evidence remains limited.

Strontium Citrate

Strontium citrate is a salt of the trace element strontium, sold as an over-the-counter dietary supplement marketed for bone health. It is chemically distinct from strontium ranelate, the prescription drug that was tested in large osteoporosis trials, and the two should not be assumed to work the same way. Because strontium is chemically similar to calcium, the body incorporates it into bone, but strong evidence that the citrate supplement reduces fractures is lacking.

Sulforaphane

Sulforaphane is a natural compound in the isothiocyanate family, produced by cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli, especially broccoli sprouts. It is not present in the intact plant but forms when the tissue is damaged, allowing an enzyme to convert its precursor, glucoraphanin, into sulforaphane. It has been studied intensively for potential health effects, chiefly through its activation of the cell's Nrf2 antioxidant defense system, although firm clinical proof of benefit in humans is still limited.

Tetrahydrocurcumin

Tetrahydrocurcumin is a colorless compound formed when curcumin, the principal yellow pigment of turmeric, is reduced, and it is one of the main metabolites produced when curcumin is broken down in the body. Chemically it is a hydrogenated curcuminoid; unlike its brightly colored parent it is nearly white, and it tends to be more chemically stable and more readily absorbed [1]. Marketed as a dietary supplement and cosmetic ingredient, tetrahydrocurcumin has been studied mainly for antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity, though most of the evidence comes from laboratory and animal work rather than large human trials [1].

Neuroprotection

Tetramethoxyluteolin

Tetramethoxyluteolin, also called methoxyluteolin, is a synthetic methylated derivative of the natural flavonoid luteolin, in which luteolin's four hydroxyl groups are replaced by methoxy groups, giving 3',4',5,7-tetramethoxyflavone. It is an investigational anti-inflammatory compound studied chiefly for its ability to inhibit human mast cells and other immune cells that drive allergic and inflammatory responses [2][3]. The methoxy substitution is intended to improve the molecule's stability and its ability to cross cell membranes compared with luteolin, and the compound has been examined mainly in laboratory research rather than in the clinic [1].

Immunomodulator

Thymopentin

Thymopentin (TP-5) is a synthetic pentapeptide, Arg-Lys-Asp-Val-Tyr, that copies residues 32 to 36 of the thymic hormone thymopoietin; that fragment is the active site of the parent molecule. It acts as an immunomodulator that nudges T-cell maturation and helps normalize an out-of-balance immune response, which is why it was studied across primary immunodeficiency, rheumatoid arthritis, chronic hepatitis B, and atopic dermatitis.

Thymus Extract

Thymus extract is a general term for preparations made from the thymus gland of animals, usually calves, and used as immunomodulators intended to support or regulate immune function. The best-studied example is thymomodulin, a calf thymus acid lysate; such extracts contain mixtures of thymic peptides rather than a single defined molecule [1]. Taken by mouth or by injection, thymus extracts have been studied mainly for reducing recurrent infections and supporting cell-mediated immunity, though they are marketed largely as supplements or nonstandard medicines outside major Western drug approvals [1][2].

Tocotrienols

Tocotrienols are a group of naturally occurring compounds that form part of the vitamin E family, alongside the more familiar tocopherols [1]. They occur in four forms, alpha, beta, gamma, and delta, and are found in dietary oils such as palm and rice bran oil. Studied mainly as fat-soluble antioxidants, they have drawn research attention for possible effects on cholesterol, cognition, and cellular health [2][3].

Trofinetide

Trofinetide is a synthetic analog of the neuroprotective tripeptide glycine-proline-glutamate, the N-terminal fragment of insulin like growth factor 1, and is the first FDA approved treatment for Rett syndrome. It is thought to improve neuronal morphology and synaptic function and reduce neuroinflammation.

Turkey Tail Mushroom

Turkey tail, Trametes versicolor (formerly Coriolus versicolor), is a common polypore bracket fungus found on dead wood worldwide, named for the fan of concentric, multicoloured bands that resemble a wild turkey's tail. It has a long history in East Asian herbal traditions, where it is known in China as yunzhi, and is the source of two well-studied polysaccharide preparations, PSK (Krestin) and PSP. In Japan PSK is approved as an adjunct to conventional cancer treatment, and the mushroom is widely sold elsewhere as an immune-oriented dietary supplement [1].

Urolithin B

Urolithin B is one of the urolithins, compounds produced by gut bacteria from the ellagitannins and ellagic acid in foods such as pomegranates, walnuts and berries. Chemically it is a monohydroxy dibenzopyranone and a downstream product of the same microbial pathway that yields urolithin A. It has been studied mainly for effects on skeletal muscle, where laboratory and animal work suggests it can promote muscle growth [1][2].

Vatiquinone

Vatiquinone (EPI-743) is an orally bioavailable para-benzoquinone derived from alpha-tocotrienol, developed as a mitochondrial-protective agent for inherited mitochondrial disease and other disorders driven by oxidative stress. It is structurally related to coenzyme Q10 and idebenone but acts principally by suppressing ferroptotic lipid peroxidation rather than by shuttling electrons in the respiratory chain. The compound inhibits 15-lipoxygenase and restores the reduced glutathione pool, protecting neurons from iron- and lipid-dependent death. It has been evaluated in numerous clinical trials in mitochondrial epilepsy, Friedreich ataxia, and Leigh syndrome, with mixed but occasionally encouraging results on seizure burden.

VD11

VD11 is an 11-amino-acid linear peptide (VDELWPPWLPC) isolated from the spinal cord of the Chinese odorous frog Odorrana schmackeri. In one preclinical study it pushed microglia to release the neurotrophic factors NGF and BDNF and helped rats recover motor function after a complete spinal cord transection. People look at it as an early-stage, frog-derived candidate for central nervous system repair, not as a supplement.

Wild Yam

Wild yam is a twining perennial vine of the genus Dioscorea, most often referring to the North American species Dioscorea villosa. Its tuberous root contains steroidal saponins, chiefly diosgenin, a plant sterol that historically served as a starting material for the industrial synthesis of steroid hormones. In folk medicine it was used for cramps and other complaints, and today it is marketed as a dietary supplement and topical cream, though controlled research has not supported its popular hormonal claims.

Wogonin

Wogonin is a naturally occurring O-methylated flavone, chemically 5,7-dihydroxy-8-methoxyflavone, found chiefly in the root of Scutellaria baicalensis (Chinese skullcap). It is one of that plant's characteristic flavonoids and has drawn scientific interest as a positive allosteric modulator of the GABA-A receptor and for a range of preclinical anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities. Wogonin is a research compound rather than an approved medicine.

Xanthohumol

Xanthohumol is a prenylated chalcone, a type of flavonoid, and the principal such compound in the female flowers of the hop plant (Humulus lupulus). Because hops are used to brew beer, xanthohumol is a natural constituent of beer, usually at very low concentrations. It has been widely studied in the laboratory for antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities, and it is sold as a dietary supplement rather than an approved medicine.

Zeaxanthin

Zeaxanthin is a yellow-orange xanthophyll carotenoid and one of the most widespread carotenoids in nature. In humans it concentrates with lutein in the macula of the retina to form the macular pigment; at the central fovea, where blue-light exposure and oxidative load are highest, the retina enzymatically converts dietary lutein into a third pigment, meso-zeaxanthin, so that additional protection is generated precisely where it is most needed. Obtained from foods such as corn, peppers, saffron, and goji berries, it is used both as a food coloring and as a dietary supplement studied for eye health, with higher macular pigment density also associated with measures of visual and neural processing.

Zinc

Zinc is a chemical element and an essential trace mineral required by all forms of life. In the human body it is the second most abundant trace metal after iron and is needed for the function of hundreds of enzymes, as well as for immune defense, growth, wound healing, and DNA synthesis. It is obtained from foods such as shellfish, meat, legumes, and seeds, and it is also taken as a dietary supplement, most familiarly in lozenges marketed for the common cold.

Zinc L-Carnosine

Zinc L-carnosine, also known by the generic name polaprezinc, is a chelate compound in which a zinc ion is bound to the dipeptide L-carnosine. Developed in Japan, it is used there and in some other countries as a prescription medicine for gastric ulcers and gastritis, and it is sold elsewhere as a dietary supplement for gut and mucosal health. It is valued as a mucosa-protective agent rather than an acid-suppressing drug.