for educational and safety purposes
The anti-aging and healthspan shelf; senolytics, mitochondrial support, NAD+ boosters, and the bioregulators studied for longevity.
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Astaxanthin is a reddish keto-carotenoid of the xanthophyll subgroup, produced by microalgae such as Haematococcus pluvialis and concentrated up the food chain in krill, shrimp, salmon and flamingos, which it colours pink to red. Structurally it is unusual: one molecule spans the full width of a cell membrane, its polar end groups anchored at both surfaces while the chain crosses the lipid interior. It is a potent lipid-soluble antioxidant in the direct sense, but its more durable action is transcriptional; it activates Nrf2, the transcription factor that switches on the cell's own antioxidant enzymes, which is why it is classed as an Nrf2 activator rather than only a scavenger. It is sold as an aquaculture feed pigment and a human supplement, and is studied for skin, ocular, cardiovascular, metabolic and neuroprotective effects.
Cerluten is a capsule of peptide fractions extracted from the brain tissue of young cattle, sold as a supplement for the central nervous system; it is an organ extract and not a defined peptide.
DNSP-11 is a synthetic 11-amino-acid peptide copied from the pro-region of GDNF, a natural protein that helps dopamine-producing brain cells survive. In rats and in a small group of monkeys it raised dopamine activity and protected dopamine neurons against chemical damage, which is why it is discussed as a possible Parkinson's disease treatment. The evidence is entirely animal and cell-culture work, almost all of it from a single laboratory at the University of Kentucky; no person has ever received it in a registered clinical trial, and the receptor it acts on has never been identified. Material sold online under this name is an unapproved research chemical with no human safety data behind it.
EPObis is a synthetic dendrimeric peptide designed from the binding Site 1 sequence of human erythropoietin, guided by the crystal structure of the erythropoietin-receptor complex. It binds the erythropoietin receptor and reproduces the cytokine's tissue-protective signaling; in cultured neurons it promotes neurite outgrowth and survival in a receptor-dependent manner. Unlike erythropoietin itself, EPObis is non-erythropoietic, so it activates protective pathways without stimulating red blood cell production, and after systemic administration it crosses the blood-brain barrier into the cerebrospinal fluid. In rodent studies it reduces tumor necrosis factor release from activated macrophages and microglia, delays clinical signs in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, and enhances working memory, marking it as an experimental neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory research peptide.
Galantamine is a plant-derived alkaloid, isolated from snowdrops and related plants of the Amaryllidaceae family, used to treat the memory and thinking difficulties of mild-to-moderate Alzheimer's disease. It has an unusual dual action on the cholinergic system: it inhibits the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, and it separately acts as an allosteric potentiating ligand that binds a site distinct from the neurotransmitter's on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, making them respond more strongly to acetylcholine. Marketed under names such as Razadyne and Reminyl, it has also been studied as a nerve-agent countermeasure and, more curiously, as an aid to lucid dreaming.
Glutathione is the body's main intracellular antioxidant, a tripeptide that neutralizes free radicals, supplies phase-II liver detoxification, and protects cells and mitochondria from oxidative wear. Whether swallowing it raises the amount in the body is the unsettled question at the center of this compound: a single dose does nothing measurable, while months of daily dosing appear to raise body stores modestly and reversibly. Oral use is well tolerated and produces a small, temporary lightening of sun-exposed skin in controlled trials. Intravenous glutathione sold for skin whitening is a different matter and has drawn regulatory warnings.
Pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ) is a small quinone compound that acts as a redox cofactor and antioxidant. First described in bacteria, where it serves as a cofactor for certain enzymes, it also occurs in trace amounts in many foods and in human tissues. It was proposed to be a new mammalian vitamin, a claim that remains debated, although dietary deprivation has been reported to impair growth, reproduction, and immune function in animals; it is also noted for stimulating mitochondrial biogenesis through PGC-1-alpha and for promoting nerve growth factor synthesis. It is sold as a dietary supplement and studied for effects on mitochondrial function and cognition, though it is not classed as an essential vitamin for humans.
Pregnenolone (3β-hydroxypregn-5-en-20-one) is an endogenous neurosteroid and the first steroid synthesized from cholesterol, making it the obligatory precursor of every other steroid hormone, including progesterone, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), cortisol, the sex steroids, and the neuroactive metabolites allopregnanolone and pregnenolone sulfate. Once regarded as a metabolically inert intermediate, it is now recognized as a signaling molecule in its own right, most notably as an endogenous negative allosteric modulator of the type-1 cannabinoid receptor (CB1, the principal brain receptor for THC) and as a ligand for microtubule-associated protein 2 (MAP2, a neuronal cytoskeletal scaffolding protein), through which it promotes microtubule assembly and neurite outgrowth. Synthesized de novo in the brain by neurons and glia, it is investigated as an adjunctive treatment for schizophrenia, mood disorders, and cannabis-related conditions, and is sold over the counter as a nootropic and hormonal supplement.
Pterostilbene is a naturally occurring stilbenoid closely related to resveratrol, from which it differs by carrying two methoxy groups in place of hydroxyl groups. It is found chiefly in blueberries, grapes, and the heartwood of certain trees, where it serves as a defensive phytoalexin. The methoxy substitution makes it substantially more lipophilic, metabolically stable, and blood-brain-barrier permeable than resveratrol; in Alzheimer's-model mice it improved cognition and reduced neuroinflammation at dietary doses that were ineffective for resveratrol, apparently acting through PPAR-alpha rather than the sirtuins. It has been studied in humans in combination with nicotinamide riboside to raise NAD+ levels, and is sold as a dietary supplement rather than an approved medicine.
Resveratrol is a stilbenoid polyphenol produced by several plants as a defensive compound, or phytoalexin, in response to injury or infection. It occurs in the skins of grapes, in red wine, in peanuts, and in berries, and is extracted commercially from Japanese knotweed for use in supplements. It became widely known through research linking it to sirtuin enzymes and the so-called French paradox; in animal studies, activation of the SIRT1 and AMPK pathways induced mitochondrial biogenesis, increased running endurance, and protected against diet-induced metabolic disease. Its relevance in people remains uncertain, as oral bioavailability is very low and at least one trial found that it blunted the cardiovascular benefits of exercise training in older men.
TP-508, known in development as Chrysalin and later given the name rusalatide acetate, is a synthetic 23-amino-acid peptide that copies the receptor-binding domain of human alpha-thrombin. It is a tissue-repair peptide, not a nootropic; the appeal is regenerative. Unlike whole thrombin it has no enzymatic activity, so it does not clot blood; instead it binds a distinct class of cell-surface thrombin receptors and kicks off a cascade of healing signals, including angiogenesis (new blood vessel growth), recruitment of inflammatory and progenitor cells, chemotaxis, and cell proliferation. It has been through real animal work and several human trials in diabetic foot ulcers and distal radius fractures, plus preclinical work in bone regeneration, cartilage repair, heart revascularization, and as an emergency radiation countermeasure. The clinical record is genuinely mixed; early studies looked promising, but the pivotal Phase III fracture trial missed its main clinical endpoint.
J147 is an experimental neuroprotective compound that grew out of a curcumin-like scaffold, designed at the Salk Institute through phenotypic screens that mimic the aging brain rather than any single Alzheimer's protein. In mice it is potent, orally active, and brain-penetrant: it enhances memory, raises the neurotrophic factors BDNF and NGF, and can rescue cognition even when given late, after pathology is already advanced. Its molecular target was a mystery for years until 2018, when it was identified as the mitochondrial ATP synthase; gently modulating that enzyme flips on the AMPK/mTOR longevity pathway, tying Alzheimer's and ordinary brain aging to a shared mechanism. Crucially, essentially all of this is preclinical; a phase 1 safety study was reportedly initiated but no human efficacy results have been published. Treat J147 as a promising research compound, not a proven drug.
ISRIB is an experimental laboratory compound that switches off a cellular alarm system called the integrated stress response; that alarm normally slows a cell's protein production when the cell is under strain. It works by clamping a protein machine called eIF2B into its active shape, which lets brain cells resume making the new proteins that forming a memory depends on. In mice and rats it speeds learning, restores memory weeks after a head injury, and reverses some age-related memory loss, at doses well under a milligram per kilogram. All of that evidence comes from cells and rodents; ISRIB has never been given to a person in a registered clinical trial, so there is no human dose, no human safety record, and no evidence it does anything in people.
Selegiline, also known as L-deprenyl, is a selective and irreversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B), used in the treatment of Parkinson's disease and, in a transdermal patch form, of major depressive disorder. At low doses it selectively spares MAO-A, which avoids the dietary tyramine restrictions required by older monoamine oxidase inhibitors, though this selectivity is lost at higher doses. It is marketed under names including Eldepryl, Zelapar, and, as a skin patch, Emsam.
ATX-304 is a direct, pan-AMPK activator, a small molecule that switches on AMP-activated protein kinase, the cell's master energy sensor and central regulator of metabolism. In preclinical studies it reprograms cellular metabolism toward fat oxidation and away from lipid synthesis, reducing body fat, cholesterol, and fatty liver, and it protects the kidney from injury by shifting energy metabolism [1][2]. As a next-generation metabolic activator it is an investigational compound of strong interest for obesity, fatty liver disease, and tissue protection, though it remains preclinical [2].
Epithalon (also called Epitalon), the pineal tetrapeptide Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly, is one of the most celebrated compounds in the longevity world for a striking reason: in human cells it reactivated the enzyme telomerase and lengthened telomeres, the protective caps whose erosion drives cellular aging [2]. Derived from a natural pineal gland extract, it also helps normalize melatonin and acts as an antioxidant and geroprotector [1][5]. For anyone serious about longevity peptides, Epithalon is a landmark, mechanistically fascinating molecule.
Pinealon is a synthetic tripeptide bioregulator (Glu-Asp-Arg, also called the EDR peptide) from the Russian Khavinson family of short peptides, developed to support the brain and target age-related cognitive decline [1][5]. In laboratory and animal studies it acts as a neuroprotective agent that shields neurons from oxidative stress and hypoxia, promotes healthy dendrite growth, and helps regulate the genes that keep neurons functioning [1][3]. Marketed as a peptide geroprotector for memory and healthy brain aging, it is one of the best known members of the short-peptide nootropic class [4][5].
Cortagen is a synthetic brain-directed tetrapeptide (Ala-Glu-Asp-Pro) from the Khavinson family of peptide bioregulators, designed to support the structure and repair of nervous tissue [1]. In animal studies it accelerated the regeneration of injured peripheral nerve, raising nerve fiber growth rate and conduction velocity, and it selectively switched on gene expression in target tissues [1][2]. For anyone building a peptide-based longevity or neuro-recovery routine, Cortagen offers a focused, well-defined tool aimed squarely at the nervous system.
FOX-04-DRI is one of the most elegantly targeted ideas in longevity science, a peptide senolytic engineered to seek out and clear senescent "zombie" cells while sparing healthy ones. It works by breaking the FOXO4-p53 grip that keeps worn-out cells alive and inflammatory, freeing them to self-destruct. In aged animals this has produced genuine signs of rejuvenation, from restored vitality to recovered testosterone, making FOX-04-DRI a captivating frontier tool for anyone following the biology of aging.
Alpha-lipoic acid (ALA), also called lipoic acid or thioctic acid, is a naturally occurring organosulfur compound that serves as an essential cofactor for several mitochondrial enzymes involved in energy metabolism. It is soluble in both water and fat and is widely marketed as a dietary antioxidant supplement, while in some countries a pharmaceutical form is used to treat the symptoms of diabetic neuropathy.
Alagebrium (ALT-711) is the first-in-class advanced glycation end-product (AGE) crosslink breaker, a thiazolium compound engineered to sever the sugar-protein crosslinks that stiffen tissues with age and diabetes. In controlled human trials it improved large-artery compliance, lowered pulse pressure, and enhanced endothelial function in older adults with vascular stiffening [1][2]. It remains one of the most studied direct anti-glycation agents in cardiovascular aging research.
Bonomarlot is a capsule of low molecular weight peptide fractions extracted from calf bone marrow, sold as a supplement for the blood forming system; it is an organ extract with no defined sequence.
Bonothyrk is a capsule of peptide fractions extracted from animal parathyroid gland, sold as a supplement for calcium handling and bone density; it is an organ extract with no defined sequence.
Boron is a metalloid (atomic number 5) that occurs naturally as borate minerals and boric acid and is regarded in humans as a beneficial trace element rather than a formally essential nutrient. Controlled depletion and supplementation studies indicate that modest intakes, on the order of 3 mg per day, influence mineral and steroid metabolism; boron supplementation has been shown to reduce urinary calcium and magnesium loss and to raise serum concentrations of 17-beta-estradiol and testosterone, effects that are more pronounced under low-magnesium conditions. A notable short-term human study reported that boron lowered sex hormone-binding globulin and inflammatory markers while increasing free testosterone within a week, and it is obtained from fruits, vegetables, nuts, and pulses or taken as supplements such as sodium borate and calcium fructoborate. Borate compounds have relatively low mammalian toxicity, though intake is bounded by recommended upper limits.
Bronchogen is a synthetic tetrapeptide from the Khavinson family of tissue-specific peptide bioregulators, built from the amino acid composition of a bronchial mucosa polypeptide complex and aimed at the bronchopulmonary system [3][10]. It is normally written Ala-Glu-Asp-Leu, and it is not Chonluten, which is the tripeptide Glu-Asp-Gly drawn from the same complex. The research file is coherent and entirely preclinical; seventeen papers, no human study of any design, and no independent replication of the respiratory claim outside the originating research network.
Cardiogen is a synthetic short peptide marketed as a 'peptide bioregulator' aimed at the cardiovascular system. It belongs to a family of low-molecular-weight peptides developed by Vladimir Khavinson and colleagues at the St. Petersburg Institute of Bioregulation and Gerontology in Russia, who proposed that such peptides help normalize the function of specific tissues as the body ages. Cardiogen is sold as a dietary supplement rather than an approved drug, and rigorous, independent clinical evidence for it is limited.
Carnosic acid is a phenolic diterpene found in the herbs rosemary (Salvia rosmarinus) and common sage (Salvia officinalis), where it is one of the main compounds responsible for their antioxidant activity. Together with its oxidation product carnosol, it is used commercially as a natural antioxidant food preservative, labeled as rosemary extract (E392). It has been studied extensively for antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective effects, which are largely attributed to its ability to activate the cell's Nrf2 defense pathway.
Carnosine is a naturally occurring dipeptide made of the amino acids beta-alanine and L-histidine, found in high concentrations in skeletal muscle and the brain. It acts inside cells chiefly as a pH buffer during intense exercise and as an antioxidant that also protects proteins from glycation. Because dietary beta-alanine is the limiting ingredient for making it, beta-alanine supplements are commonly used to raise muscle carnosine, and carnosine itself is sold as a supplement studied for exercise, aging, and neurological health.
Chaga is the common name for Inonotus obliquus, a fungus that grows as a hard, blackened mass on birch and other trees in the cold forests of the Northern Hemisphere [1]. Although its charred-looking growth resembles burnt wood, it is actually a sterile mass of fungal tissue rich in melanin, and it has a long history in folk medicine across Russia and northern Europe, where it is often brewed as a tea [1][2]. Modern laboratory research has examined chaga extracts and their polysaccharides for antioxidant, immune, and anticancer activity, but strong clinical evidence in people is lacking, and its very high oxalate content raises safety concerns with heavy or prolonged use [1][2][3].
Chelohart is a capsule of peptide fractions extracted from cardiac muscle, sold as a supplement for the heart; it is an organ extract and not a defined peptide.
Chitomur is a capsule of peptide fractions extracted from animal bladder tissue, sold as a supplement for bladder function; it is an organ extract and not a defined peptide.
Chonluten is a synthetic short peptide bioregulator derived from bronchial tissue, part of the celebrated Russian family of tissue-specific peptides developed for respiratory and immune support. It has been shown to calm inflammatory signaling in immune cells, reducing production of TNF and IL-6. For those focused on lung health, inflammation balance, and healthy aging, Chonluten is a distinctive and targeted peptide.
Citrus bergamot refers to the bergamot orange (Citrus bergamia), a Mediterranean citrus fruit best known for flavoring Earl Grey tea and for the essential oil used in perfume. As a supplement it is standardized to the bergamot polyphenolic fraction, a mixture of flavonoids studied mainly for lowering cholesterol and improving cardiometabolic markers. The clinical evidence is encouraging but comes largely from small trials.
CMS-121 is an experimental drug created by chemically redesigning fisetin, a plant flavonoid; the result is a synthetic quinoline rather than a flavonoid itself, and it is not the same substance as fisetin. In animals it blocks fatty acid synthase, an enzyme that builds fats, and this reduces oxidative damage to the fats in cell membranes; treated mice held onto memory better in models of Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease and accelerated ageing, and also showed improved blood sugar and body weight. Human evidence is limited to a single Phase 1 study in 99 healthy volunteers that asked only whether the drug was tolerated and how the body handled it, not whether it helps anyone; that report remains an unpublished preprint. Almost all of the animal work comes from the one laboratory that invented the compound, no human being has ever been tested for a benefit, and CMS-121 is not approved anywhere for any use.
Colchicine is an anti-inflammatory medication and a natural alkaloid extracted from the autumn crocus (Colchicum autumnale) [1][2]. It has been used since antiquity for joint pain and is best known today as a treatment for gout, as well as for familial Mediterranean fever, pericarditis and, more recently, cardiovascular disease [1][3]. It works by binding tubulin and blocking the assembly of microtubules, which quietens several arms of the inflammatory response, and it appears on the World Health Organization's list of essential medicines [1][2].
Coenzyme Q10 (ubiquinone) is a fat-soluble, vitamin-like molecule found in nearly every cell, and it is the only lipid-soluble antioxidant that mammals synthesize for themselves. Within the mitochondria it is the obligatory mobile carrier that shuttles electrons from Complexes I and II to Complex III of the respiratory chain, and it also protects membranes from oxidative damage. It has been studied most in cardiovascular disease, statin-associated muscle symptoms, migraine, and mitochondrial disorders; in the Q-SYMBIO trial, supplementation reduced major cardiovascular events and all-cause mortality in patients with chronic heart failure, and primary CoQ10 deficiency is notable as one of the few mitochondrial disorders treatable by supplementation.
Crystagen is a short synthetic peptide from the Khavinson family of bioregulators, directed at the immune system and studied for its ability to help sustain immune defenses during aging [1]. In research on the aging spleen it acted on B-cells, part of a broader effort to keep immune signaling steadier as the body grows older [1]. For those assembling a peptide-based longevity routine, Crystagen offers a targeted, low-burden way to support immune resilience.
Cyanidin is a naturally occurring flavonoid pigment belonging to the anthocyanidin class, responsible for many of the red, purple, and magenta colors seen in fruits, flowers, and leaves. It is widespread in plants and especially abundant in berries, red cabbage, red grapes, and other deeply colored produce, usually present as sugar-bound forms called anthocyanins such as cyanidin-3-glucoside. Like other anthocyanidins its color shifts with acidity, and it is studied for antioxidant and other biological activities. In food it is recognized as the natural colorant designated E163a.
Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is an endogenous androstane neurosteroid and the most abundant circulating steroid hormone in humans, secreted chiefly by the adrenal cortex and also synthesized de novo within the central nervous system. It functions primarily as a precursor to androgens and estrogens, yet exerts direct actions on the brain by acting as an agonist at the sigma-1 receptor (an endoplasmic reticulum chaperone protein that shapes calcium and neurotrophic signaling), as a positive modulator of NMDA receptor (the principal excitatory glutamate ion channel involved in learning) signaling, and, chiefly as its sulfate ester DHEAS, as a negative allosteric modulator of the GABA-A receptor (the brain's main inhibitory ion channel). DHEA additionally behaves as a functional anti-glucocorticoid, buffering the neurotoxic effects of cortisol, and shows neuroprotective and mood-related activity in preclinical and clinical studies. Circulating concentrations peak in early adulthood and decline markedly with age, a phenomenon termed adrenopause that has driven its widespread use as an over-the-counter supplement.
Dihydroberberine (DHB) is a reduced, or hydrogenated, form of berberine; basically the same molecule with two extra hydrogen atoms tacked on. Once it hits the gut it gets converted right back to berberine, so you end up with all the familiar berberine effects (blood sugar control, better lipids, AMPK activation) but from a much smaller dose. The whole reason DHB exists is absorption. Plain berberine is notoriously hard to get into the bloodstream, so DHB is the clever workaround. Think of it as the same engine with a better fuel line; nothing new downstream, just far more of it actually reaching your cells. People reach for it for the same goals as berberine: steadier blood sugar, improved insulin sensitivity, healthier cholesterol and triglycerides, and that "exercise in a pill" AMPK effect on the cell's energy machinery.
EGCG (epigallocatechin gallate) is the most abundant and most studied catechin in green tea, a flavonoid polyphenol that accounts for much of the leaf's reputation for health. It is a strong antioxidant and metabolic modulator that shows up in the research on fat oxidation, cardiovascular and metabolic health, inflammation, and longevity. Most of its effects are hormetic (a mild stress the body adapts to), and the honest catch is that isolated high-dose EGCG on an empty stomach carries a rare liver-injury signal, so it is best taken with food.
Emodin is a bright orange pigment found in rhubarb, Japanese knotweed, senna and buckthorn, and it is one of the chemicals that makes those herbs work as laxatives. In the laboratory it blocks several human enzymes, most convincingly the cortisol-regenerating enzyme 11beta-HSD1 and the signalling kinase CK2, and it has been tested very heavily in cancer cell cultures. Almost none of this has been checked in people; there is no established human dose, absorption from the gut is poor because the body rapidly conjugates and clears it, and the single controlled human trial applied it to the gums as a light-activated gel rather than swallowing it. European food safety regulators concluded emodin is genotoxic and were unable to set any daily intake they considered safe, and a two-year rodent feeding study found kidney changes at every dose tested; the cell-culture literature claiming broad anti-inflammatory and anticancer benefits also contains an unusual number of retracted papers.
Empagliflozin is an oral medication of the sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitor class, used to treat type 2 diabetes, heart failure, and chronic kidney disease. It acts in the kidneys, causing the body to pass excess glucose out in the urine, and in large trials it has reduced cardiovascular death and hospitalizations for heart failure. It is taken once daily and is sold under the brand name Jardiance.
Endoluten is a capsule of polypeptide fractions extracted from the pineal gland of young cattle, sold as a neuroendocrine and anti ageing supplement; it is an organ extract and not a defined peptide.
Epiphamin is an extract of the pineal gland sold as a food supplement for hormonal rhythm and anti-ageing, and the melatonin restoration and lifespan claims attached to it have not been tested in any independent human trial.
Ergothioneine is a naturally occurring, sulfur-containing amino acid derived from histidine. It is produced only by certain fungi, mycobacteria, and cyanobacteria, yet it accumulates to relatively high levels in animals, including humans, who obtain it entirely from the diet. Mushrooms are the richest common food source. Studied mainly for its antioxidant and cell-protective properties, it is sold as a dietary supplement, although its precise physiological role in humans is not yet firmly established.
Eutropoflavin is a synthetic flavonoid studied as a selective agonist of TrkB, the receptor for brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Chemically known as 4'-dimethylamino-7,8-dihydroxyflavone, it is a modified and more potent derivative of tropoflavin (7,8-dihydroxyflavone). In animal experiments it activates TrkB more strongly and for longer than its parent compound and shows neuroprotective, neurogenic, and antidepressant-like effects. It is not an approved medicine, although it has been sold online as a nootropic.
FGL is a synthetic 15-residue peptide copying the loop that the neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) uses to switch on FGFR1 growth-factor signalling. In rodents it has sharpened learning and memory, strengthened synaptic transmission, and protected hippocampal neurons against amyloid-beta, ischemia and injury. Its dimeric form cleared a single-dose phase 1 study in 24 healthy men and the announced Alzheimer's trial never followed, so every efficacy claim on this page is still an animal claim. Two findings sit against the promise: it lowered the seizure threshold in a kindling model, and it reduced neuron counts in uninjured brains.
Fisetin is a naturally occurring flavonoid, specifically a flavonol, found in fruits and vegetables such as strawberries, apples and onions. It is a yellow plant pigment that acts as an antioxidant and has drawn scientific interest for its potential effects on aging, including an ability to clear senescent cells. It is sold as a dietary supplement, though clinical evidence of benefit in humans remains limited.
Follistatin 344 targets muscle growth at its source, binding and neutralizing myostatin, the very signal the body uses to cap how large muscles can become. In animal models, raising follistatin drives striking gains in lean mass alongside lower body fat, and the protein has been carried all the way into human gene-therapy trials for muscular dystrophy. For anyone fascinated by the most powerful lever in muscle biology, follistatin 344 is a cornerstone research tool with a genuinely remarkable track record.
Garlic extract is a concentrated preparation made from garlic (Allium sativum), a pungent bulb of the onion family that has served as both food and folk remedy for thousands of years. Its characteristic chemistry comes from sulfur-containing compounds, most notably allicin, which forms when the bulb is crushed [2]. Sold in forms such as garlic powder, garlic oil, and aged garlic extract, it is marketed as a dietary supplement, with research focusing chiefly on modest effects on blood pressure, cholesterol, and immunity [1].
Glandokort is a capsule of peptide fractions extracted from animal adrenal glands, sold as a supplement for adrenal function and stress tolerance; it is an organ extract and not a defined peptide.
Glucosamine is a natural building block of cartilage and one of the most enduring joint supplements, taken by millions for joint comfort and osteoarthritis. Beyond symptom relief, controlled research has shown it can lower C-reactive protein, a real marker of systemic inflammation, and regular users repeatedly turn up in observational data with lower inflammation and better long-term health. Inexpensive, remarkably well tolerated, and low-risk for almost everyone, glucosamine is one of the easiest joint experiments a person can run.
Gotratix is a capsule of peptide fractions extracted from skeletal muscle, specifically triceps tissue of young animals, sold as a supplement for muscular endurance and recovery; it is an organ extract and not a defined peptide.
GPL Femme is a capsule combining six animal organ peptide extracts with alpha lipoic acid, sold as a women's anti ageing formula; the peptide portion is undefined extract rather than sequenced peptide.
GPL Man is a capsule combining six animal organ peptide extracts with alpha lipoic acid, sold as a men's anti ageing formula; the peptide portion is undefined extract rather than sequenced peptide.
Humanin is a 24-amino-acid mitochondrial-derived peptide and one of the first signaling molecules found to be encoded within the mitochondrial genome rather than the nucleus, translated from a short open reading frame inside the 16S ribosomal RNA region. It was first identified in the surviving neurons of an Alzheimer's-affected brain as a rescue factor, and it is broadly cytoprotective; a well-characterized part of its anti-apoptotic action is that it directly binds the pro-death protein BAX and sequesters it away from the mitochondrial membrane. It has been reported to improve insulin sensitivity, protect the heart against ischemic injury, and correlate with longevity, with higher circulating levels in the offspring of centenarians, and it is studied as a target in aging and neurodegeneration.
Hyaluronic acid, also called hyaluronan, is a large sugar molecule, an anionic glycosaminoglycan, found throughout the body's connective tissues, skin, joints, and eyes. It binds large amounts of water and provides lubrication and structure to the extracellular matrix. Widely used in medicine and cosmetics, it appears in joint injections for osteoarthritis, eye surgery fluids, dermal fillers, wound dressings, and oral supplements marketed for skin and joint health.
Idebenone is a synthetic analog of coenzyme Q10 (ubiquinone), a short-chain benzoquinone with antioxidant and mitochondrial properties. Originally developed by Takeda for Alzheimer's disease and other cognitive disorders, it is now used mainly as an approved treatment for Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy, a rare inherited cause of vision loss. It has also been studied in other mitochondrial and neuromuscular diseases and is used as an antioxidant ingredient in some skincare products.
Indolepropionamide (IPAM) is a naturally occurring indole compound, chemically related to melatonin, that has been studied as a mitochondrial protectant and antioxidant. In laboratory research it was reported to stabilize energy production in mitochondria, lower the output of reactive oxygen species, and extend lifespan in a simple invertebrate model. It remains an investigational substance with limited study rather than an approved medicine.
Libidon is a capsule of peptide fractions extracted from animal prostate gland, sold as a supplement for prostate health; it is an organ extract and not a defined peptide.
Lithium orotate is a salt of lithium and orotic acid sold as a low-dose dietary supplement. It provides much less elemental lithium per tablet than the lithium carbonate used as a prescription mood stabilizer, and it is marketed for mood and general wellbeing. It is not approved as a medicine, and rigorous human evidence for its benefits is lacking.
Livagen is a short synthetic peptide (Lys-Glu-Asp-Ala) from the Khavinson family of bioregulator peptides, studied for its intriguing ability to influence gene activity in aging cells. Published work reports that it can decondense tightly packed chromatin and reactivate ribosomal genes in immune cells from elderly donors, a striking demonstration of epigenetic effects from a tiny molecule. For those following the frontier of peptide-based longevity research, Livagen is one of the more thought-provoking bioregulators.
Lutein is a yellow xanthophyll carotenoid found in dark leafy greens, corn, and egg yolks. In the body it concentrates in the macula of the retina, where together with zeaxanthin it forms the macular pigment, and it is also selectively taken up into the brain by the carrier protein StARD3; macular pigment density has been found to correlate with lutein concentrations in the occipital cortex, so retinal measurements can serve as a non-invasive index of brain lutein. It is studied mainly in relation to eye health and, more tentatively, cognition, and is used as a dietary supplement and, in some regions, as the food colorant E161b.
Melatonin is a hormone best known as the body's circadian signal for darkness, produced by the pineal gland to help govern the sleep-wake cycle; taken as a supplement it can shorten the time to fall asleep and is particularly useful for jet lag and shifted schedules. Less familiar is its other identity: melatonin is synthesized inside the mitochondria of virtually every cell, with under five percent of the body's total coming from the pineal gland, and there it acts as a potent, amphiphilic antioxidant whose own breakdown products are also radical scavengers, giving it a cascade effect. It is thought to be one of the oldest antioxidants in biology, predating its later role as a sleep and circadian signal, and it is generally regarded as safe and non-habit-forming for most adults.
MitoVitan is a face serum built around SkQ1, the mitochondria-targeted antioxidant developed by the Skulachev group.
MitoVitan Active is a concentrated SkQ1 solution meant to be blended into an existing cream or serum.
N-acetylcysteine (NAC) is one of the most versatile and well-evidenced antioxidant compounds available, prized as a direct precursor to glutathione, the body's master intracellular antioxidant. Beyond replenishing glutathione to counter oxidative stress, it fine-tunes glutamate signaling through the cystine-glutamate antiporter, a mechanism that has driven serious clinical research across psychiatry and neurology [1][3]. It is a decades-old hospital staple, serving as the standard antidote for acetaminophen overdose and as a proven mucolytic, all at low cost and with an excellent tolerability record.
Nattokinase is a protein-digesting enzyme extracted from natto, a traditional Japanese food made by fermenting soybeans with the bacterium Bacillus subtilis. It is a serine protease of the subtilisin family and is notable for its fibrinolytic, or clot-dissolving, activity in the laboratory. It is sold as a dietary supplement marketed for cardiovascular and circulatory support, although rigorous clinical evidence is mixed.
Nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN) is a nucleotide derived from vitamin B3 and a direct biosynthetic precursor to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+), a coenzyme essential to energy metabolism and cellular repair. Because NAD+ levels fall with age, NMN has been widely promoted as a longevity supplement intended to restore them. Animal studies report broad metabolic and anti-aging effects, while human trials are still early and have mainly examined safety and specific measures such as insulin sensitivity.
Nobiletin is a polymethoxylated flavone, a type of plant flavonoid distinguished by several methoxy groups attached to its ring structure. It occurs naturally in the peels of citrus fruits, being especially abundant in tangerines and related species. Laboratory and animal research has examined it for anti-inflammatory, metabolic, and neuroprotective activity, and more recently for its ability to influence the body's circadian clock. It is a dietary constituent and research compound rather than an approved medicine.
Ovagen is a short peptide bioregulator from the Russian Khavinson tradition, built on the Glu-Asp-Leu (EDL) sequence and directed at the liver and digestive tissue. In the bioregulator model, tiny peptides enter cells and steer tissue-specific gene expression rather than acting on surface receptors, an elegant, low-burden approach that fits naturally into a longevity-minded routine [1][2]. It is a research compound aimed at supporting detoxification, protein synthesis, and healthy cell turnover with age.
Pancragen is a short peptide bioregulator from the Khavinson tradition, built on the Lys-Glu-Asp-Trp (KEDW) sequence and directed at the pancreas. It is a favorite in longevity circles for its elegant premise; a tissue-specific peptide that steers gene expression to help pancreatic cells keep functioning with age, with the KEDW sequence specifically linked to pancreatic cell differentiation in the research [1][2]. It is a research compound for healthy aging rather than a diabetes treatment.
Peptide Complex Pro 01 is a leave on skin lotion combining two animal organ peptide extracts with a ginseng derived antioxidant complex and rosemary oil, sold for the heart and arteries; it is a topical cosmetic style mixture rather than a peptide of known sequence.
Peptide Complex Pro 02 is a leave on skin lotion combining a brain tissue peptide extract with a ginseng derived antioxidant complex and grapefruit oil, sold for the nervous system; it is a topical mixture rather than a peptide of known sequence.
Peptide Complex Pro 03 is a leave on skin lotion combining a thymus peptide extract with a ginseng derived antioxidant complex and lavender and jasmine oils, sold for immune support; it is a topical mixture rather than a peptide of known sequence.
Peptide Complex Pro 04 is a leave on skin lotion combining cartilage and thymus peptide extracts with a ginseng derived antioxidant complex, sold for the spine and joints; it is a topical mixture rather than a peptide of known sequence.
Peptide Complex Pro 05 is a leave on skin lotion combining a thyroid peptide extract with a ginseng derived antioxidant complex and sage oil, sold for the thyroid gland; it is a topical mixture rather than a peptide of known sequence.
Peptide Complex Pro 06 is a leave on skin lotion combining four animal organ peptide extracts with a ginseng derived antioxidant complex and cinnamon oil, sold for the male reproductive system; it is a topical mixture rather than a peptide of known sequence.
Peptide Complex Pro 07 is a leave on skin lotion combining vascular, brain and thymus peptide extracts with a ginseng derived antioxidant complex and sandalwood oil, sold for the female reproductive system; it is a topical mixture rather than a peptide of known sequence.
Peptide Complex Pro 08 is a leave on skin lotion combining vascular, thymus and bronchial mucosa peptide extracts with a ginseng derived antioxidant complex and peppermint oil, sold for the lungs; it is a topical mixture rather than a peptide of known sequence.
Peptide Complex Pro 09 is a topical liquid from the Khavinson bioregulator range, combining four animal tissue peptide fractions for skin.
Peptide Complex Pro 10 is a leave on skin lotion combining a vascular peptide extract with a ginseng derived antioxidant complex and lavender oil, sold for the veins; it is a topical mixture rather than a peptide of known sequence.
Peptide Complex Pro 11 is a leave on skin lotion combining thymus, kidney and bladder peptide extracts with a ginseng derived antioxidant complex and oregano oil, sold for the urinary tract; it is a topical mixture rather than a peptide of known sequence.
Peptide Complex Pro 12 is a leave on skin lotion combining pancreas, thymus, liver and stomach peptide extracts with a ginseng derived antioxidant complex and orange oil, sold for the stomach and duodenum; it is a topical mixture rather than a peptide of known sequence.
Peptide Complex Pro 13 is a leave on skin lotion combining vascular, brain and eye tissue peptide extracts with a ginseng derived antioxidant complex and chamomile oil, sold for the eyes and ears; it is a topical mixture rather than a peptide of known sequence.
Peptide Complex Pro 14 is a leave on skin lotion combining a pineal gland peptide extract with a ginseng derived antioxidant complex and chamomile oil, sold for the neuroendocrine system; it is a topical mixture rather than a peptide of known sequence.
Pielotax is a capsule of polypeptide fractions extracted from animal renal parenchyma, sold as a supplement for kidney function; it is an organ extract and not a defined peptide.
Prostamax is marketed as a synthetic prostate peptide bioregulator, part of the Russian family of short, tissue-targeted peptides developed from the concept that organ-specific peptide extracts can normalize function in the corresponding tissue. The compound itself has essentially no dedicated peer-reviewed literature; the supporting evidence is class-level and centers on the related natural prostate peptide preparation Prostatilen, which has been used in Russian urology for chronic abacterial prostatitis, with reported improvements in urinary symptoms, prostate secretion parameters, and erectile function measured by penile Doppler ultrasonography. These studies are small, largely open-label or single-center, and published chiefly in Russian-language journals, so claims specific to Prostamax should be regarded as preliminary and extrapolated from the broader peptide-bioregulator class rather than established for the product by name.
Quercetin is a plant flavonoid, specifically a flavonol, and one of the most abundant polyphenols in the human diet, found in foods such as onions, apples, capers, berries, and tea. It is a potent antioxidant in laboratory tests and acts as a zinc ionophore, carrying zinc across cell membranes, and it is best known in aging research as one half of the original senolytic combination, dasatinib plus quercetin, which clears senescent cells and has entered first-in-human trials. Oral quercetin is nonetheless poorly absorbed, and it has not been shown in humans to treat or prevent any disease; it is sold as a dietary supplement.
R-alpha-lipoic acid is the naturally occurring form of alpha-lipoic acid, a sulfur-containing compound that the body uses as an essential cofactor in energy metabolism and that also acts as an antioxidant. Alpha-lipoic acid exists as two mirror-image forms, and only the R version is made and used by living cells, whereas most synthetic supplements contain an equal mixture of the R and S forms. Sold as a dietary supplement and, in some countries, as a medicine for diabetic nerve pain, the R form is often promoted as the more biologically active and better absorbed of the two.
This product pairs R-alpha-lipoic acid, the naturally occurring enantiomer, with a dose of biotin.
Rapamycin, also known as sirolimus, is a macrolide compound isolated from a soil bacterium found on Easter Island (Rapa Nui), where it was first identified as an antifungal. It inhibits the mTOR pathway, a central regulator of cell growth and autophagy, giving it immunosuppressant and antiproliferative properties used clinically to prevent transplant rejection, to coat coronary stents, and to treat certain rare diseases. It has drawn wide scientific interest as the only drug shown to extend lifespan in every model species tested, an effect that is dose- and sex-dependent, and a short course of mTOR inhibition has even been reported to rejuvenate the aging immune system in older adults.
Red yeast rice is a bright reddish-purple product made by fermenting rice with the mold Monascus purpureus. Long used in China as a food coloring and in traditional medicine, it contains monacolin K, a compound chemically identical to the cholesterol-lowering statin lovastatin. It is sold as a dietary supplement to lower cholesterol, though the strength and purity of products vary considerably.
Retinol is a fat-soluble vitamin and the alcohol form of vitamin A, essential for vision, immune function, skin, and the regulation of gene activity. It is obtained from animal foods such as liver, eggs, and dairy, while plant carotenoids serve as precursors the body can convert. Widely used in dermatology and cosmetics, it is beneficial in normal amounts but toxic in excess, and is a known cause of birth defects when overconsumed during pregnancy.
Revilab Anti-A.G.E. is an oral antioxidant capsule aimed at glycation of skin collagen and elastin.
Revilab SL 01 is a sublingual drop combining two animal organ peptide extracts with licorice, propolis, mint and chamomile extracts and two essential oils, sold for the cardiovascular system; it is a proprietary mixture rather than a peptide of known sequence.
Revilab SL 02 is a sublingual drop combining brain, retina and vascular peptide extracts with herbal extracts and essential oils, sold for the nervous system and vision; it is a proprietary mixture rather than a peptide of known sequence.
Revilab SL 03 is a sublingual drop combining pineal and two immune tissue peptide extracts with herbal extracts and essential oils, sold for immune and neuroendocrine support; it is a proprietary mixture rather than a peptide of known sequence.
Revilab SL 04 is a sublingual drop combining immune, cartilage and muscle peptide extracts with herbal extracts and essential oils, sold for muscles, bones and joints; it is a proprietary mixture rather than a peptide of known sequence.
Revilab SL 05 is a sublingual drop combining liver, pancreas and lung peptide extracts with herbal extracts and essential oils, sold for the digestive system and lungs; it is a proprietary mixture rather than a peptide of known sequence.
Revilab SL 06 is a sublingual drop combining immune, bronchial and lung peptide extracts with herbal extracts and essential oils, sold for the respiratory system; it is a proprietary mixture rather than a peptide of known sequence.
Revilab SL 07 is a sublingual drop combining immune, bone marrow and vascular peptide extracts with folic acid and vitamin B12, sold for the blood forming system; it is a proprietary mixture rather than a peptide of known sequence.
Revilab SL 08 is a sublingual drop combining immune, vascular and bladder peptide extracts with herbal extracts and essential oils, sold for the urinary system; it is a proprietary mixture rather than a peptide of known sequence.
Revilab SL 09 is a sublingual drop combining pineal, testis, bladder and prostate peptide extracts with herbal extracts and essential oils, sold for men's health; it is a proprietary mixture rather than a peptide of known sequence.
Revilab SL 10 is a sublingual drop combining pineal, vascular and bladder peptide extracts with herbal extracts and essential oils, sold for women's health; it is a proprietary mixture rather than a peptide of known sequence.
S-Acetyl Glutathione is an acetylated form of glutathione, the body's principal intracellular antioxidant. It is used as a dietary supplement intended to raise glutathione levels, and the acetyl group is meant to make the molecule more stable and better absorbed than ordinary glutathione when taken by mouth. Once inside cells the acetyl group is removed, releasing active glutathione.
SAM-e is a molecule the body already makes from the amino acid methionine; it is the chemical the body uses to hand a methyl group to hundreds of enzymes, which is how it reaches DNA, brain chemicals such as dopamine, and liver metabolism. It is sold as a dietary supplement in the United States and as a prescription drug called ademetionine in Italy, Germany and Russia, mostly for depression, joint pain and liver problems. The evidence is real but genuinely mixed; the Cochrane review of eight trials found the quality too low to draw a conclusion, the largest United States trial found SAM-e no better than placebo, and two separate 2024 meta-analyses of much the same studies reached opposite answers. It is usually well tolerated apart from stomach upset, but it can trigger mania in people with bipolar disorder and should not be combined casually with antidepressants.
Selenium is an essential trace element required in small amounts for human health, where it is built into a family of proteins called selenoproteins. These selenoproteins, which include the antioxidant enzyme glutathione peroxidase, thioredoxin reductase, and the deiodinases that regulate thyroid hormone, give selenium roles in antioxidant defense, immune function, and thyroid metabolism. Its relationship with health follows a U-shaped curve, since both deficiency and excess are harmful.
Sermorelin is a synthetic analogue comprising the first 29 amino acids of growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH), the shortest fragment that retains full biological activity at the pituitary GHRH receptor. Rather than supplying growth hormone directly, it stimulates the somatotrophs to secrete the body's own hormone, preserving the natural pulsatile rhythm and leaving intact the negative feedback that guards against overexposure. Once approved for the diagnosis and treatment of growth hormone deficiency, it is now used chiefly in compounding and research settings, where interest centers on recovery, body composition, and sleep. The broader GHRH-receptor family it belongs to is under active study for effects well beyond the pituitary, including agonist protection in heart failure and antagonist activity against prostatic hyperplasia, fibrosis, and tumor growth.
Sigumir is a capsule of low molecular weight peptide fractions extracted from calf cartilage and bone, sold as a supplement for joints and spine; it is an organ extract and not a defined peptide.
SkQ1 is a mitochondria-targeted antioxidant, a synthetic compound built by attaching the plant antioxidant plastoquinone to a positively charged carrier that accumulates inside mitochondria. Developed by a Russian team led by Vladimir Skulachev, it is designed to neutralize reactive oxygen species at their main source and has been studied for aging and age-related conditions. Its best-known application is a dilute eye-drop formulation approved in Russia to treat dry eye syndrome.
Spermidine is a naturally occurring polyamine, a small organic molecule found in all living cells and in many foods such as wheat germ, aged cheese, soybeans, and mushrooms. First isolated from semen, which gives it its name, it plays fundamental roles in cell growth, gene regulation, and membrane stability. In recent years it has attracted attention as a potential longevity compound because it triggers autophagy, the cellular recycling process linked to healthy aging.
SS-31, also known as elamipretide or Bendavia, is a cell-permeable mitochondria-targeting tetrapeptide that concentrates thousands-fold on the inner mitochondrial membrane by binding cardiolipin, the lipid that organizes the cristae and the electron-transport supercomplexes. Rather than acting as a general antioxidant, it restores cristae structure and bioenergetics in mitochondria damaged by ischemia, disease, or aging; in aged mouse muscle a single dose restored ATP production toward youthful levels within about an hour. It has been evaluated in clinical trials for primary mitochondrial diseases, heart failure, and age-related conditions.
Stamakort is a capsule of peptide fractions extracted from animal stomach tissue, sold as a supplement for the gastric lining; it is an organ extract and not a defined peptide.
Suprefort is a capsule of peptide fractions extracted from animal pancreas, sold as a supplement for pancreatic function and glucose handling; it is an organ extract and not a defined peptide.
Svetinorm is a capsule of peptide fractions extracted from animal liver, sold as a supplement for liver function; it is an organ extract and not a defined peptide.
Taxorest is a capsule of peptide fractions extracted from bronchial mucous membrane, sold as a supplement for the airways; it is an organ extract and not a defined peptide.
Testagen is a synthetic tetrapeptide, Lys-Glu-Asp-Gly, from the Khavinson family of short peptide bioregulators [1]. The experimental literature describes it as an ANTERIOR PITUITARY peptide and tests it on the thyroid, the thymus, immunity and clotting in hypophysectomised birds [2][3][5][6]; the male reproductive description that usually accompanies it comes from review tables rather than from an experiment [9][10]. All of the evidence is animal or cell culture. There is no human data.
Testoluten is a capsule of peptide fractions extracted from animal testes, sold as a supplement for male reproductive function; it is an organ extract and not a defined peptide.
Thymalin is a polypeptide preparation extracted from the thymus gland of calves, developed in the Soviet Union and Russia and used as an immunomodulator. It is a mixture of small thymic peptides intended to restore and regulate immune function, particularly the maturation and activity of T lymphocytes [2]. Studied and marketed chiefly in Russia and neighboring countries as an immunocorrector and geroprotector, Thymalin is given by injection and is not an approved medicine in the United States or the European Union [1][2].
Thymulin is a thymic peptide hormone, a nonapeptide produced by the epithelial cells of the thymus gland, that plays a role in the maturation and regulation of T lymphocytes. It was described in the 1970s, originally under the name serum thymic factor (facteur thymique serique, FTS), and its biological activity depends on being bound to the metal zinc, making it a zinc-dependent metallopeptide [1]. Beyond its classic immune role, thymulin also interacts with the neuroendocrine system and has shown anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties in experimental studies, which has prompted interest in its therapeutic potential [2].
Thyreogen is a capsule of peptide fractions extracted from animal thyroid gland, sold as a supplement for thyroid function; it is an organ extract and not a defined peptide.
Trekrezan is a Russian actoprotector and adaptogen (a synthetic agent that raises the body's nonspecific resistance to physical, thermal, and hypoxic stress) that also acts as an immunomodulator and antioxidant. Chemically it is tris(2-hydroxyethyl)ammonium 2-methylphenoxyacetate, the triethanolamine salt of ortho-cresoxyacetic acid (molecular formula C15H25NO6), and the same active substance is marketed in agriculture and microbiology under the name Crezacin. It was developed by the school of academician Mikhail Voronkov at the Irkutsk Institute of Organic Chemistry, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, and has been studied primarily in rodent models with a smaller body of human cold-exposure data. Rather than binding a single receptor, Trekrezan is characterized as an energy-stabilizing, meteoadaptogenic compound that shifts stressed tissue metabolism back toward aerobic ATP production, strengthens enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant defenses, and modulates humoral immunity and hematopoiesis.
Tauroursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA) is a naturally occurring bile acid formed in the body when taurine is joined to ursodeoxycholic acid. It is a water-attracting bile acid present in only small amounts in humans but in large quantities in bear bile, which is why it featured in traditional East Asian medicine. Modern research has examined it as a cell-protective agent, particularly for its ability to reduce cellular stress and blunt programmed cell death in models of liver, metabolic, and neurodegenerative disease.
Ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) is a hydrophilic bile acid, originally identified in bear bile, used chiefly to treat primary biliary cholangitis and to dissolve certain cholesterol gallstones. It improves cholestatic liver biochemistry by enriching the bile acid pool with a less cytotoxic, more water-loving species and by protecting cholangiocytes and hepatocytes, while its taurine conjugate acts as a chemical chaperone that relieves endoplasmic reticulum stress and reduces apoptosis. These properties underlie growing interest in UDCA and its conjugates as neuroprotective and metabolic agents, including disease-modifying trials in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. In a notable repurposing discovery, UDCA was shown to downregulate the SARS-CoV-2 entry receptor ACE2 by inhibiting the farnesoid X receptor, reducing infection across organoids, animals and human tissues; the drug appears on the World Health Organization list of essential medicines.
Urolithin A is a compound produced by gut bacteria from ellagitannins and ellagic acid, plant polyphenols found in foods such as pomegranates, walnuts and berries. It is not present in food itself but is formed in the gut, and people differ widely in how much they make, with some producing none. It has attracted research as an inducer of mitophagy, the recycling of damaged mitochondria, and is sold as a dietary supplement studied for mitochondrial health, muscle function and ageing [1][2].
Ventfort is a capsule of peptide fractions extracted from arterial wall tissue, sold as a supplement for the vascular system; it is an organ extract and not a defined peptide.
Ventramin is an enteric coated tablet of protein and nucleoprotein extracted from bovine gastric mucosa, sold in Russia as a food supplement for stomach and duodenal complaints; it is an organ extract and not a peptide of known sequence.
Vesugen is a synthetic tripeptide composed of lysine, glutamic acid and aspartic acid (Lys-Glu-Asp). It is one of the short peptide bioregulators developed in Russia and is described as a vascular peptide, meaning it is intended to support the blood vessels and their inner lining, especially in aging. Research on it comes mainly from Russian laboratories, and it is not an approved medicine in Western countries.
Visoluten is a capsule of peptide fractions extracted from whole eye tissue of young animals, sold as a supplement for vision; it is an organ extract and not a defined peptide.
Vitamin B3 is an essential water-soluble nutrient that exists in two main forms, nicotinic acid (niacin) and nicotinamide (niacinamide), both of which the body converts into the coenzymes NAD+ and NADP+ that drive hundreds of redox reactions in energy metabolism. A prolonged dietary lack causes pellagra, the deficiency disease classically remembered by the "three Ds" of dermatitis, diarrhea, and dementia. In pharmacologic doses nicotinic acid favorably shifts blood lipids (raising HDL while lowering LDL, triglycerides, and lipoprotein(a)) and produces the characteristic warm "niacin flush," whereas nicotinamide has neither the flush nor the lipid effects and is used mainly in dermatology. It is distinct from the dedicated NAD-boosting precursors nicotinamide riboside (NR) and NMN, which are covered in their own entries.
Vitamin E is the collective name for a group of eight fat-soluble compounds, four tocopherols and four tocotrienols, of which alpha-tocopherol is the form the body preferentially retains and the one with the greatest vitamin activity. Its principal role is as a lipid-soluble antioxidant that protects cell membranes from damage by free radicals. Vitamin E is found in vegetable oils, nuts, seeds, and green vegetables, and dietary deficiency is rare, usually resulting from disorders of fat absorption rather than low intake.
Vladonix is a capsule of peptide fractions extracted from calf thymus, sold as a supplement for immune function; it is an organ extract and not a defined peptide.
Zhenoluten is a capsule of peptide fractions extracted from animal ovaries, sold as a supplement for female reproductive function and the menopausal transition; it is an organ extract and not a defined peptide.
Metformin is an oral antidiabetic medication of the biguanide class and the first-line drug for type 2 diabetes. Derived originally from a compound in the French lilac plant, it lowers blood sugar chiefly by reducing the amount of glucose the liver releases, without causing the weight gain or low blood sugar seen with some other agents. Beyond diabetes it is used in polycystic ovary syndrome and prediabetes, and its apparent effects on metabolism and aging have made it a subject of ongoing longevity research.
MOTS-c is a mitochondrial-derived peptide that acts as one of the body's own regulators of metabolism, energy, and healthy aging. Encoded inside the mitochondrial genome and released during exercise, it switches on the master energy sensor AMPK to improve insulin sensitivity, glucose handling, and physical performance. Backed by a fast-growing body of research from its discovery at USC, it sits at the leading edge of longevity and metabolic science.
Vilon is a synthetic dipeptide made of the amino acids lysine and glutamic acid (Lys-Glu). It is one of the short peptide bioregulators developed in Russia and is described as a thymus-associated immunomodulatory peptide intended to support immune function, particularly in aging. Most of the research on it comes from Russian laboratories, and it is not an approved medicine in Western countries.
Thymagen, also transliterated as Thymogen, is a synthetic thymus-derived peptide used as an immunomodulator, developed in the Soviet Union and Russia as part of a family of short peptide bioregulators. It is a dipeptide made of the amino acids glutamic acid and tryptophan (glutamyl-tryptophan), designed to reproduce the immune-stimulating activity of the thymus gland [3][4]. Given mainly by nasal or injectable routes, it has been studied and used chiefly in Russia and neighboring countries to support immune function in infections, immunodeficiency, and the perioperative and aging settings; it is not an approved medicine in the United States or the European Union [2][3].
Cartalax is a synthetic short peptide bioregulator, the tripeptide Ala-Glu-Asp, from the celebrated Russian family of tissue-targeted peptides studied for cellular renewal and healthy aging. Working at the level of gene expression, it has been shown to reduce markers of cellular senescence and support proliferation in aging cells. For those pursuing a science-driven approach to regeneration and longevity, Cartalax is a compelling peptide.
NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) is a foundational coenzyme found in every living cell and a centerpiece of modern longevity science. It powers the redox reactions that generate cellular energy and serves as the essential fuel for the sirtuins and PARPs that govern DNA repair, metabolism, and healthy aging [1][2]. Because NAD+ pools decline with age, restoring them through precursor supplementation has become one of the most actively researched strategies for metabolic and neurological health [1].
Intranasal insulin is an experimental way of giving insulin as a nasal spray so that it reaches the brain directly, largely bypassing the bloodstream. It is studied mainly as a potential treatment for memory disorders such as Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment, on the idea that boosting insulin signaling in the brain might support cognition. It is not an approved therapy; early studies were encouraging, but the largest trial to date did not show a clear benefit.
1-Methylnicotinamide (1-MNA) is an endogenous metabolite of nicotinamide produced by the enzyme nicotinamide N-methyltransferase (NNMT), and it sits within the nicotinamide and NAD+ salvage pathway. Long regarded as a biologically inert excretory product, it is now recognised as a vasoprotective, anti-thrombotic and anti-inflammatory agent that stimulates endothelial release of prostacyclin (PGI2) and nitric oxide [1][2]. It is marketed as a metabolic and longevity-oriented supplement.
24(S)-Hydroxycholesterol (historically named cerebrosterol) is an endogenous oxysterol (an oxygenated derivative of cholesterol) generated almost exclusively in neurons by the enzyme cholesterol 24-hydroxylase (CYP46A1). It is the principal chemical route by which the brain, which cannot degrade cholesterol, exports its surplus; because the added hydroxyl group at carbon 24 allows the molecule to cross the blood-brain barrier (the selective interface between blood and brain tissue), plasma levels of 24(S)-hydroxycholesterol serve as an accessible marker of brain cholesterol turnover and neuronal mass. Beyond its housekeeping role, it is a bona fide neurosteroid; at physiological concentrations it acts as a potent positive allosteric modulator of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors (a class of glutamate-gated ion channels central to learning and memory) and as an agonist of liver X receptors (LXR, nuclear receptors that govern lipid handling). Its pharmacology inspired the synthetic analog dalzanemdor (SAGE-718), an NMDA receptor positive allosteric modulator developed for cognitive impairment.
6-Paradol is a pungent phenolic compound found in ginger and grains of paradise, closely related to gingerols and shogaols. It has been studied for thermogenesis and activation of brown adipose tissue (brown fat, which burns energy to produce heat), along with metabolic and antioxidant effects. It is generally treated as a food-derived supplement ingredient rather than a drug.
Amyloid beta (Aβ), historically called the A4 peptide, is a short peptide of roughly 36 to 43 amino acids best known as the principal constituent of the amyloid plaques found in the brains of people with Alzheimer's disease. It is produced naturally in the body through enzymatic cleavage of a larger membrane protein, and its accumulation and aggregation are central to the leading theory of how Alzheimer's disease develops.
Adiponectin is a protein hormone secreted mainly by fat cells that helps regulate blood sugar and the breakdown of fatty acids. Encoded by the ADIPOQ gene, it is one of the most abundant hormones in human blood and improves the body's sensitivity to insulin while exerting anti-inflammatory effects. Unusually for a fat-derived hormone, its levels tend to fall rather than rise with obesity, and low levels are linked to type 2 diabetes and metabolic disease.
Agaricus blazei is an edible mushroom, more correctly known by the scientific name Agaricus subrufescens, that is used both as food and as a traditional health supplement. Native to the Americas and widely cultivated in Brazil and Japan, it is prized for its almond-like aroma and marketed under names such as almond mushroom and royal sun agaricus. It contains polysaccharides including beta-glucans that are the focus of research into immune and liver effects, though strong clinical evidence for medicinal benefit remains limited.
Akkermansia muciniphila is a common bacterium of the human gut that lives in the protective mucus layer of the intestine, where it feeds on mucin. Discovered in 2004, it typically makes up a few percent of the gut microbes in healthy people, and its abundance tends to be lower in obesity and type 2 diabetes. It has drawn intense research interest as a next-generation probiotic, with early human studies suggesting that supplementing it may improve markers of metabolic health.
Alpha-estradiol is 17alpha-estradiol, the C17 epimer of the ordinary human estrogen 17beta-estradiol. Flipping that one hydroxyl group leaves a molecule that still binds estrogen receptor alpha but only weakly, which is why it turns up in two settings that look unrelated: as one of the most reproducible lifespan-extending drugs in the National Institute on Aging Interventions Testing Program, and as a topical scalp solution licensed in Germany for female pattern hair loss under the name alfatradiol. The two settings share a fact that runs through everything below. Its effects are sex-specific to an unusual degree. The lifespan extension happens in male mice and not female ones [1], it disappears when males are castrated [3], and every controlled human trial of the topical form was run in women. A compound that improves one sex and does nothing measurable in the other is not a compound where a general recommendation is possible.
Alpha-ketoglutarate (AKG), the conjugate base of alpha-ketoglutaric acid, is a five-carbon dicarboxylic acid that serves as a central intermediate of the citric acid (Krebs) cycle and a hub of amino acid and nitrogen metabolism. Beyond its metabolic role, it acts as a required cofactor for a large family of enzymes that regulate collagen formation and the epigenetic marking of DNA and histones. It is also sold as a dietary supplement, typically as calcium, arginine, or ornithine salts, and has drawn research interest for possible effects on aging and healthspan [1][4].
Androstenediol (androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol, commonly abbreviated 5-androstenediol or 5-AED) is an endogenous Δ5 androstane steroid formed as a direct metabolite of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA, the most abundant circulating adrenal steroid). It sits at a branch point in steroidogenesis, functioning both as a weak, ERβ-preferring estrogen (a steroid that activates the estrogen receptor) and as a prohormone that can be converted onward to testosterone. Its most distinctive documented activity is immunomodulatory and hematopoietic; under the development code Neumune it was investigated as a radiation countermeasure that accelerates recovery of white blood cells and platelets after whole-body irradiation. Its inclusion in the neurosteroid grouping is one of exhaustiveness, since unlike allopregnanolone it has only a marginal classic neurosteroid profile at the GABA-A and NMDA receptors, and its central effects are attributed mainly to estrogen receptor beta signaling.
Arzoxifene is a benzothiophene selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM) developed by Eli Lilly and studied for osteoporosis and breast cancer prevention in postmenopausal women. It reduced vertebral fractures and invasive breast cancer risk in Phase 3 trials but was not brought to market.
Ashitaba is the common name for Angelica keiskei, a perennial flowering plant in the carrot family (Apiaceae) native to the Pacific coast of Japan. Its Japanese name means "tomorrow's leaf," a reference to how quickly it regrows after being cut. The plant is eaten as a vegetable and used in Japanese folk medicine, and its yellow sap is notable for containing distinctive chalcones, chiefly xanthoangelol and 4-hydroxyderricin, which are the focus of most laboratory research.
Astragaloside IV is a cycloartane-type triterpenoid saponin and one of the principal bioactive constituents of Astragalus membranaceus (Astragali Radix, or huang qi), a root long used in traditional Chinese medicine. It is commonly used as a chemical marker for the quality control of astragalus preparations. In laboratory and animal research it has drawn interest for anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and cardioprotective activity, though clinical evidence in humans remains limited.
Astragalus is a herbal medicine prepared from the dried root of Astragalus membranaceus (also classified as Astragalus mongholicus or Astragalus propinquus), a flowering legume known in Chinese as huang qi. It is one of the most widely used tonic herbs in traditional Chinese medicine, where the root is valued for supporting energy and immune function. Its roots contain saponins such as astragaloside IV, polysaccharides, and flavonoids, and modern research has focused mainly on its immune-modulating properties.
Astragalus polysaccharides (often abbreviated APS) are the carbohydrate fraction extracted from the root of Astragalus membranaceus, the legume used in traditional Chinese medicine as huang qi. They are regarded as one of the main groups of bioactive compounds in the root and are studied chiefly for immune-modulating activity. Most of the evidence comes from cell and animal experiments, where the polysaccharides act on immune cells and their signaling pathways.
Banaba leaf extract is a botanical extract from the leaves of Lagerstroemia speciosa, a flowering tree of the family Lythraceae native to tropical Asia, also known as giant crepe-myrtle or pride of India. Long used as a leaf tea in Southeast Asian folk medicine for lowering blood sugar, the extract is valued for two main constituents, the triterpene corosolic acid and a group of ellagitannins. It is marketed as a dietary supplement for blood-sugar and metabolic support, with most supporting evidence coming from animal studies and small human trials.
Bitter melon extract is a herbal preparation derived from Momordica charantia, a tropical and subtropical vine of the gourd family (Cucurbitaceae) whose warty, intensely bitter fruit is both a vegetable and a traditional medicine. Long used in Asian, African, and Caribbean cooking and folk remedies, the plant and its extracts have been studied mainly for a possible blood-sugar-lowering effect in type 2 diabetes [1]. Clinical evidence for this use is mixed and generally of low quality, with some trials and analyses suggesting a modest benefit and others finding no clear effect [2][3]. It is sold as a dietary supplement in the form of capsules, powders, teas, and juices.
C60 fullerene, also called buckminsterfullerene, is a spherical molecule made of sixty carbon atoms arranged in a hollow cage of hexagons and pentagons. It is an allotrope of carbon, discovered in 1985, and its soccer-ball shape earned it a name honoring the architect Buckminster Fuller. In biomedical research it has been studied mainly for its antioxidant and free-radical-scavenging properties.
CAD-31 is a preclinical Alzheimer's candidate from the Salk Institute, selected for its ability to make neural precursor cells divide and then tested in aged Alzheimer's model mice, where it reduced memory deficits and brain inflammation. ⚠️ It has no known molecular target. No binding or potency measurement against any protein has ever been published for it, and its stated mechanism of fatty acid metabolism and inflammation is a description of what changed downstream rather than of what the molecule does. ⚠️ It is frequently grouped with CMS121 as a fisetin derivative. It is not one. Its own paper traces it back through J147 to curcumin, which is different chemistry from a different programme in the same laboratory.
Calcium alpha-ketoglutarate (Ca-AKG) is the calcium salt of alpha-ketoglutarate, a naturally occurring metabolite of the citric acid (Krebs) cycle that sits at the crossroads of energy production and amino acid metabolism. The calcium form is a stable, water-soluble powder used as a dietary supplement, and it is the version studied in much of the recent research on aging. Interest in Ca-AKG grew after animal experiments suggested it could extend healthy lifespan, although robust evidence in humans is still limited.
Calcium citrate is the calcium salt of citric acid, used chiefly as a dietary calcium supplement and as a food additive (E333). Unlike calcium carbonate, it dissolves without needing stomach acid, so it can be taken with or without food and is often preferred by people with low stomach acid, those on acid-reducing medicines, and patients after weight-loss surgery. It supplies somewhat less elemental calcium by weight than calcium carbonate but is valued for its reliable absorption and gentler effect on digestion.
Cat's claw (Uncaria tomentosa) is a woody climbing vine of the madder family (Rubiaceae) native to the Amazon rainforest and other parts of Central and South America, named for the curved, claw-like thorns along its stems. Its root and bark have long been used in Peruvian and other indigenous herbal traditions, and it is now sold worldwide as a dietary supplement, chiefly for immune support and joint and inflammatory conditions. Laboratory and small clinical studies point to anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity, but high-quality evidence for treating human disease remains limited.
CE-158 is an investigational, highly selective atypical dopamine transporter inhibitor developed by academic groups in Vienna, Salzburg, and Cagliari as a modafinil-derived cognitive enhancer. In rodents it raises prefrontal and hippocampal dopamine, restores age-related synaptic and cognitive decline, and improves behavioral flexibility without signs of abuse liability. It is a preclinical research compound with no human data.
Chondroitin, usually supplied as chondroitin sulfate, is a sulfated glycosaminoglycan that forms a major structural component of cartilage and other connective tissues. Within the body it binds water inside the cartilage matrix, giving the tissue much of its resistance to compression. As an oral product it is marketed mainly for osteoarthritis, frequently combined with glucosamine, and in parts of Europe a pharmaceutical grade is classified as a prescription slow-acting osteoarthritis drug rather than a dietary supplement.
CinSulin is a brand of water-extracted cinnamon supplement marketed for blood sugar support. It is produced by steeping cinnamon bark in water to concentrate the water-soluble compounds believed to influence glucose metabolism while leaving behind most of the fat-soluble coumarin. Small trials of this style of aqueous cinnamon extract have reported modest reductions in fasting blood glucose, although the broader evidence for cinnamon in diabetes remains mixed.
Cistanche is a genus of parasitic desert plants in the family Orobanchaceae whose dried fleshy stems have long been used in traditional Chinese medicine. Known in Chinese as rou cong rong and nicknamed desert ginseng, it is taken as a tonic said to support vitality, sexual function, and healthy aging. Its most studied constituents are phenylethanoid glycosides such as echinacoside and acteoside, though most of the supporting evidence to date comes from laboratory and animal research.
Corallocin A is an isoindolinone natural product first isolated from the coral tooth mushroom Hericium coralloides and subsequently found in Hericium erinaceus fruiting bodies. It induces both nerve growth factor and brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression in human astrocytes, making it one of the dual-neurotrophin inducers of the Hericium genus. Its ability to raise BDNF as well as NGF distinguishes it from the classic NGF-focused hericenones and links it to memory-relevant signaling.
Corallocin B is a benzofuranone natural product isolated from the mushroom Hericium coralloides alongside corallocins A and C. It induces nerve growth factor and brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression in human astrocytes and, unusually for this class, also shows antiproliferative activity against endothelial and cancer cell lines. This combination of neurotrophic and antiproliferative properties makes it a distinctive dual-activity member of the Hericium neuroactive metabolites.
Cordycepin, also known as 3'-deoxyadenosine, is a nucleoside analog of adenosine in which the hydroxyl group at the 3' position of the sugar is replaced by hydrogen. It was first isolated in 1950 from the entomopathogenic fungus Cordyceps militaris, and it also occurs in related fungi and can now be produced synthetically. Because it closely resembles adenosine, cordycepin can slip into biochemical pathways in place of the natural nucleoside, an ability that underlies its studied antitumor, anti-inflammatory, and antiviral properties.
Cycloastragenol is a triterpenoid from Astragalus, the aglycone of astragaloside IV, and the active ingredient of the supplement TA-65. It is sold as a telomerase activator. ⚠️ It has no known molecular target and does not bind telomerase; the effect on telomerase is indirect, runs through MAPK signalling, and reverses within days of stopping [1]. Telomerase activity has never been measured in a human given it. Its one randomised telomere trial was positive at 8 mg and null at 32 mg [3].
Dapansutrile (OLT1177) is an orally active beta-sulfonyl nitrile small molecule that selectively inhibits the NLRP3 inflammasome, blocking maturation and release of the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-1 beta and interleukin-18. Developed by Olatec Therapeutics, it is investigational and has completed early-phase human trials in gout and systolic heart failure with a favorable safety profile.
Dasatinib is a prescription anticancer drug of the tyrosine kinase inhibitor class, sold under the brand name Sprycel. It blocks the BCR-ABL fusion protein and Src-family tyrosine kinases and is used mainly to treat chronic myeloid leukemia and Philadelphia-chromosome-positive acute lymphoblastic leukemia, including cases that have become resistant to the older drug imatinib. Beyond oncology, it has drawn interest in aging research, where the combination of dasatinib and quercetin is studied as a senolytic that clears senescent cells. It is taken by mouth and was first approved in 2006.
Decylubiquinone is a short-chain synthetic analog of coenzyme Q10 in which the long polyisoprenoid tail is replaced by a simple ten-carbon decyl chain, yielding a redox-active ubiquinone with greater aqueous handling and cell permeability. It participates in mitochondrial electron transport as a ubiquinone surrogate and can enhance respiratory complex activity, while also acting as a reactive-oxygen-species scavenger that blocks the redox-triggered mitochondrial permeability transition. Widely employed as a laboratory ubiquinone standard, it has been proposed as a candidate antioxidant along the same lines as idebenone. It is chiefly a research compound rather than a marketed supplement.
Dexpramipexole (KNS-760704) is the R-enantiomer of the dopamine agonist pramipexole, stripped of most dopaminergic activity and repurposed as a mitochondrial bioenergetic agent. It binds the F1Fo ATP synthase and increases mitochondrial ATP production, and it is brain-penetrant, orally active, and generally well tolerated. Despite a promising phase 2 signal in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, it failed to beat placebo in the large phase 3 EMPOWER trial, though preclinical work continued to show bioenergetic protection in stroke models. Its enantiomeric relationship to a marketed Parkinson drug and its ATP-synthase mechanism make it a distinctive entry in the mitochondrial nootropic and neuroprotection landscape.
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is a long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid, designated 22:6(n-3), that serves as a major structural lipid in the brain, retina, and wider nervous system. It is obtained chiefly from fatty fish, fish oil, and algae-derived oils, and the human body can form only small amounts of it from the shorter omega-3 precursor alpha-linolenic acid. DHA is widely used in dietary supplements and infant formulas and is studied for roles in neurodevelopment, cognition, and cardiovascular health.
DHEA sulfate (DHEAS) is the 3-beta sulfate ester of dehydroepiandrosterone and the most abundant circulating steroid in the human body, present in plasma at concentrations roughly a thousandfold higher than unconjugated DHEA. Synthesized principally in the zona reticularis of the adrenal cortex, it functions as a stable, long-lived reservoir that is interconverted with DHEA and supplies a precursor pool for downstream androgens and estrogens. Within the nervous system it is classified as a neurosteroid (a steroid synthesized in or acting directly upon nervous tissue); it acts as an agonist at the sigma-1 receptor (an intracellular chaperone protein), a positive modulator of the NMDA receptor (a glutamate-gated excitatory ion channel), and a negative allosteric modulator of the GABA-A receptor (the brain's principal inhibitory ion channel), giving it a net excitatory, pro-cognitive neuromodulatory profile. Circulating concentrations fall markedly with age, a decline termed adrenopause that has made DHEAS a widely studied biomarker of adrenal function, cognitive aging, and longevity.
Erinacine A is the flagship cyathane diterpenoid produced by the mycelium of the culinary-medicinal mushroom Hericium erinaceus (Lion's Mane). It is the single most pharmacologically characterized Lion's Mane metabolite in the central nervous system, acting as a potent low-molecular-weight inducer of nerve growth factor (NGF) synthesis. Unlike the larger hericenones of the fruiting body, erinacine A is small and lipophilic enough to cross the blood brain barrier, giving it central activity after oral dosing in rodents. Preclinical work reports benefit across Alzheimer-type pathology, Parkinsonian models, ischemic stroke, metabolic-driven cognitive decline, and colorectal cancer models.
Erinacine C is a cyathane diterpenoid from Hericium erinaceus mycelium and one of the more potent members of the erinacine series for inducing nerve growth factor synthesis. Beyond neurotrophic activity, it is distinguished by a well-characterized anti-neuroinflammatory profile: in microglial models it suppresses nitric oxide and pro-inflammatory cytokine production while activating the cytoprotective Nrf2/HO-1 pathway. It is investigated as a natural neuroprotective lead for conditions driven by microglial activation and oxidative stress.
Erinacine P is a cyathane diterpenoid isolated from liquid cultures of Hericium erinaceus and is best understood as a biosynthetic precursor within the erinacine pathway that leads to erinacine A and erinacine C. Despite its precursor role it is itself neuroactive, promoting neurite outgrowth in PC12 cells at low micromolar concentrations. It is of particular interest to metabolic engineers seeking to raise erinacine A yields, since the pathway flows through erinacine P.
Everolimus is a medication that inhibits mTOR, a master regulator of cell growth, and is chemically a derivative of the natural product sirolimus (rapamycin). It is used both to treat several cancers, including advanced kidney cancer, certain breast cancers, and neuroendocrine tumors, and to prevent organ rejection after transplantation. Developed by Novartis, it is sold under brand names such as Afinitor, Votubia, Zortress, and Certican. It is taken by mouth once daily and appears on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.
Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) is a redox-active coenzyme derived from riboflavin (vitamin B2) that many enzymes rely on to carry out oxidation and reduction reactions. It serves as the tightly bound helper molecule for a large family of proteins called flavoproteins, which are central to energy metabolism. FAD works by cycling between oxidized and reduced chemical forms as it shuttles electrons.
Ferulic acid is a naturally occurring plant compound, a type of hydroxycinnamic acid, best known as a dietary antioxidant. It is abundant in the cell walls of grains, seeds and other plants, where it is bound to fibers and helps give the walls their rigidity. It is widely used as an antioxidant ingredient in foods and in skincare products, often paired with vitamins C and E.
Fish oil is an oil obtained from the tissues of oily fish and a popular dietary supplement. It is a source of the long-chain omega-3 fatty acids EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) and DHA (docosahexaenoic acid), which the body uses to make signaling molecules that influence inflammation. It is taken mainly for heart health and to lower high triglyceride levels, though the evidence for broad cardiovascular benefit is mixed.
Flavin mononucleotide (FMN), also called riboflavin-5'-phosphate, is a coenzyme made from riboflavin (vitamin B2) that helps enzymes carry out electron-transfer reactions. It acts as the working partner, or prosthetic group, for a range of oxidoreductase enzymes, and it is the form in which riboflavin is first activated inside the body. FMN is also used as an orange-red food coloring.
Follistatin 315 is the main circulating (blood-borne) isoform of follistatin, a naturally occurring protein 315 amino acids long that binds and neutralizes members of the TGF-beta family such as activin and myostatin. Because myostatin is a brake on muscle growth, follistatin's ability to soak it up has made this isoform a subject of muscle-growth and body-composition research. It is a research protein, not an established supplement.
Fucoidan is a sulfated polysaccharide, a large sugar-based molecule, found mainly in the cell walls of brown seaweeds such as kelp, wakame, and bladderwrack. Built largely from the sugar fucose studded with sulfate groups, it has been studied in the laboratory for a wide range of biological effects, including anticoagulant, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and antitumor activity. Despite this interest, high-quality human evidence remains limited and fucoidan is not an approved drug in any country. It is sold as a dietary supplement and used as a food and cosmetic ingredient.
Gamma-tocopherol is one of the four tocopherol forms of vitamin E and the form that predominates in the diet in the United States. Chemically it is a fat-soluble antioxidant that differs from the better-known alpha-tocopherol by a single methyl group on its ring, a small difference that gives it distinctive chemical behavior [1][2]. It is plentiful in many plant seed oils and nuts and is also used as a food additive, designated E308.
GDF-11, or growth differentiation factor 11 (also called bone morphogenetic protein 11), is a secreted signaling protein of the transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta) superfamily. It is closely related to myostatin, sharing much of its structure and using the same receptors, and during embryonic development it helps pattern the skeleton and other tissues [1][5]. GDF-11 became widely known through contested research that proposed it as a blood-borne rejuvenation factor, a claim later studies called into question [2][5].
Genistein is a naturally occurring isoflavone, a type of plant polyphenol that behaves as a phytoestrogen. It is found chiefly in soybeans and other legumes and was first isolated in 1899 from dyer's broom, the plant from which it takes its name. Because its structure resembles the hormone estradiol, it can interact with estrogen receptors, and it is also a well-studied inhibitor of tyrosine kinase enzymes [1][2].
Ginsenosides are a class of natural steroid glycosides and triterpene saponins found almost exclusively in plants of the genus Panax, the source of ginseng. They are regarded as the principal active constituents behind ginseng's biological effects, and more than a hundred distinct ginsenosides have been characterized. Structurally most belong to the dammarane family and are divided into protopanaxadiol and protopanaxatriol types, with individual members such as Rb1, Rg1, and Re studied for antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective activities.
GV1001 is a 16-residue peptide taken from the sequence of human telomerase, developed by GemVax as a cancer vaccine and now pursued in prostate enlargement and Alzheimer's disease. ⚠️ It is widely sold and described as a telomerase activator or anti-aging peptide, and that is a category error: it is a fragment of the enzyme used as an antigen, and the programme it came from was designed to make the immune system destroy telomerase-expressing cells rather than to switch the enzyme on [1]. Its pivotal trial, in 1,062 pancreatic cancer patients, failed [1].
He Shou Wu, also known as fo-ti or tuber fleeceflower, is the processed root of Reynoutria multiflora (formerly Polygonum multiflorum), a climbing plant of the buckwheat family, Polygonaceae, native to China. It is one of the most widely used tonic herbs in traditional Chinese medicine, historically taken for hair color, vitality, and longevity. Modern attention has focused both on its bioactive stilbenes and anthraquinones and on well-documented cases of liver injury linked to its use.
Hericene A is a hydrophobic hericerin-derived isoindoline compound from Hericium erinaceus that activates a pan-neurotrophic signaling pathway distinct from the classic NGF mechanism. In cultured hippocampal neurons it and its precursor N-de-phenylethyl isohericerin promoted extensive axon outgrowth and neurite branching even without serum, acting partly through a TrkB-independent route that converges on ERK1/2. Mice fed Hericium extract and hericene A showed increased neurotrophin signaling and significantly enhanced hippocampal memory, making hericene A a standout modern discovery in Lion's Mane neurobiology.
Hericenone C is an aromatic fatty-acid ester isolated from the fruiting body of Hericium erinaceus and one of the classic small-molecule inducers of nerve growth factor synthesis identified from Lion's Mane. Together with hericenones D and E it helped establish the scientific basis for the mushroom's traditional reputation as a nerve tonic. Unlike the mycelial erinacines, hericenones are relatively large and lipophilic and are thought to act largely peripherally rather than crossing the blood brain barrier efficiently.
Hericenone D is an aromatic fatty-acid ester from the fruiting body of Hericium erinaceus, one of the original nerve growth factor-inducing hericenones described from Lion's Mane. It is closely related to hericenones C and E and contributes to the neurotrophic activity attributed to fruiting-body extracts. Like its congeners it is considered to act predominantly in the peripheral nervous system rather than crossing the blood brain barrier.
Relaxin-2 is the principal circulating form of relaxin in humans, a small peptide hormone belonging to the insulin and relaxin superfamily. Produced mainly by the corpus luteum, and also by the breast, placenta, and prostate, it plays a central part in the physiological adaptations of pregnancy, including widening of blood vessels and remodeling of reproductive tissues. A recombinant version, serelaxin, was investigated as a treatment for acute heart failure, though large trials did not confirm a clinical benefit.
Hydergine is the trade name for ergoloid mesylates, a mixture of methanesulfonate salts of several hydrogenated ergot alkaloids derived from the ergot fungus. Developed by Albert Hofmann at Sandoz, it was long prescribed for age-related cognitive decline and cerebral insufficiency and is often cited as one of the earliest nootropics. Reviews of its use in dementia have found modest overall effects and good tolerability, though its efficacy remains uncertain.
Hydroxytyrosol is a phenolic phytochemical found in olives, olive oil and olive leaves, valued chiefly for its strong antioxidant activity. Chemically a catechol-type phenylethanoid, it is one of the main polyphenols behind the health reputation of the Mediterranean diet. It is sold as a dietary supplement and food ingredient and is a subject of research into cardiovascular and anti-inflammatory effects.
Jiaogulan is a climbing vine in the gourd family, Cucurbitaceae, whose scientific name is Gynostemma pentaphyllum. Native to parts of South and East Asia, its leaves are brewed as a herbal tea and used in traditional Chinese and other folk medicine, where it has earned nicknames such as southern ginseng and five-leaf ginseng [1]. Its notable constituents are saponins called gypenosides, some of which are structurally close to the ginsenosides of true ginseng [1][2].
Kaempferol is a naturally occurring flavonoid, specifically a flavonol, found widely across the plant kingdom and in many common foods such as kale, broccoli, onions, tea, and berries. Chemically it is a yellow crystalline solid known as 3,4',5,7-tetrahydroxyflavone, and it is one of the main flavonols in the human diet [1]. It has been studied extensively in the laboratory for antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and other biological activities [1][2].
Lanosterol is a tetracyclic triterpenoid sterol and the biosynthetic precursor from which the body makes cholesterol. Beyond its normal metabolic role, it has drawn scientific interest because experiments suggest it can help dissolve the clumped crystallin proteins that cause cataracts in the eye's lens. Most of that work is experimental and topical, so it is best framed as a research-stage compound rather than a proven treatment.
Lunasin is a naturally occurring peptide of forty-three amino acids first isolated from soybean seed. It also occurs in cereal grains such as barley, wheat, and rye, and in a few other seeds. Since the late 1990s it has been studied chiefly for possible cancer-preventive, cholesterol-lowering, and anti-inflammatory effects, with most attention paid to its apparent ability to influence how genes are switched on and off by altering histone proteins.
Lycopene is a bright red carotenoid pigment found most abundantly in tomatoes and other red fruits such as watermelon and pink grapefruit. Chemically it is a tetraterpene hydrocarbon, and unlike some carotenoids it has no vitamin A activity. It is valued as a dietary antioxidant and as a natural food colorant, and it has been studied for possible roles in prostate and cardiovascular health, though the clinical evidence is mixed.
Maitake (Grifola frondosa) is an edible and medicinal mushroom native to temperate forests of East Asia and North America, where it grows in large clustered fruiting bodies at the base of trees. It is valued both as a culinary mushroom and as a source of bioactive polysaccharides, especially beta-glucans, that have been studied for immune-modulating and antitumor effects [1][3]. A partially purified extract known as maitake D-fraction has been the focus of much of the medicinal research [2][3].
Menaquinone-7 (MK-7) is a long-chain form of vitamin K2, one of the naturally occurring menaquinones distinguished by a side chain of seven isoprenoid units. It is produced by bacterial fermentation and is found most abundantly in the Japanese fermented soybean dish natto. Like other K vitamins, it acts as a cofactor for the enzyme that activates vitamin K-dependent proteins involved in blood clotting, bone mineralization, and the regulation of soft-tissue calcification. Compared with shorter menaquinones and with vitamin K1, MK-7 has a notably long half-life in the bloodstream, which has helped make it a popular dietary supplement.
Mitochonic Acid 5 (MA-5) is a synthetic indole-3-acetic acid derivative that boosts cellular ATP production through a mechanism independent of the classical electron transport chain. Rather than shuttling electrons, it binds the inner-membrane crista-junction protein mitofilin and promotes oligomerization of ATP synthase and formation of respiratory supercomplexes, improving the efficiency of energy generation while lowering reactive oxygen species. It rescued survival of fibroblasts from patients with diverse mitochondrial diseases and improved renal, cardiac, and muscle outcomes in animal and cell models. It is an investigational mitochondrial homing compound of unusual mechanistic interest.
MitoQ, known chemically as mitoquinone or mitoquinol mesylate, is a mitochondria-targeted antioxidant derived from coenzyme Q10. It couples the antioxidant quinone of coenzyme Q10 to a positively charged triphenylphosphonium ion, a modification that drives the molecule to accumulate inside mitochondria, where much of the cell's harmful reactive oxygen species is generated. Developed in New Zealand in the late 1990s, it is sold as a dietary supplement and has been studied in a range of conditions linked to oxidative stress and aging.
MitoTEMPO is a mitochondria-targeted superoxide dismutase mimetic created by conjugating the nitroxide antioxidant TEMPO to a lipophilic triphenylphosphonium cation. The positively charged phosphonium moiety drives the molecule to accumulate several-hundred-fold inside the negatively charged mitochondrial matrix, where the nitroxide catalytically scavenges superoxide and alkyl radicals at their principal source. It is one of the most widely used experimental tools for testing whether mitochondrial reactive oxygen species drive a given disease process, and it has shown therapeutic effects in preclinical models of hypertension, ferroptosis, and inflammation. It is a research reagent rather than a clinical drug.
Myricetin is a naturally occurring flavonoid of the flavonol subclass, a plant pigment found in many fruits, vegetables, berries, teas and wines. Closely related in structure to quercetin, it is studied chiefly for antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity and a broad range of other effects observed in the laboratory. It is not a drug but a dietary compound, consumed in ordinary foods and sold as a supplement.
N-Acetyl Epitalon is an acetylated analog of Epitalon, a synthetic tetrapeptide with the sequence Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly that was derived from the pineal gland extract epithalamin. The parent peptide was developed largely at the St. Petersburg Institute of Bioregulation and Gerontology and studied as a putative anti-aging agent, with reports that it can switch on telomerase and lengthen telomeres in cultured human cells. The N-acetyl modification is intended to improve the molecule's stability; robust human clinical evidence for either form remains limited.
Nicotinamide riboside (NR) is a form of vitamin B3 and a precursor to nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+), the coenzyme central to cellular energy metabolism. Like the related molecule NMN, it is marketed as a longevity and energy supplement on the premise that boosting NAD+ counteracts age-related decline. Human trials show that oral NR is well absorbed and reliably raises NAD+ levels, although evidence that this produces meaningful clinical benefits is still developing.
Olesoxime (TRO19622) is an orally active, brain-penetrant cholesterol-oxime developed as a mitochondrial-targeted neuroprotectant. It concentrates at the outer mitochondrial membrane, binds the translocator protein TSPO and the voltage-dependent anion channel VDAC, and prevents opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore under oxidative and calcium stress. Originally identified for its ability to keep motor neurons alive when deprived of neurotrophic factors, it was advanced through clinical trials in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and spinal muscular atrophy. Although pivotal endpoints were not met, its favorable safety and clean mechanism keep it a reference compound for permeability-transition-pore-targeted neuroprotection.
Oleuropein is a phenolic compound of the secoiridoid class and one of the main polyphenols of the olive tree. It is found in olive leaves, in olives, and in smaller amounts in olive oil, and it is chiefly responsible for the bitter taste of unprocessed olives. Structurally it combines the antioxidant hydroxytyrosol with elenolic acid and a sugar unit. It has been studied for a range of biological activities, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cardiovascular effects, and is regarded as a dietary and research compound rather than an approved medicine.
Omaveloxolone (RTA-408, brand name Skyclarys) is an orally active synthetic oleanane triterpenoid that pharmacologically activates the master antioxidant transcription factor Nrf2 while suppressing NF-kappaB-driven inflammation. By restoring Nrf2 signaling, which is chronically suppressed in Friedreich ataxia, it targets the intertwined oxidative, inflammatory, and bioenergetic deficits that impair mitochondrial ATP production. It became the first therapy approved for Friedreich ataxia in the United States after the MOXIe trial demonstrated meaningful improvement in neurological function. It represents the mitochondrial-longevity strategy of upregulating endogenous antioxidant defenses rather than supplying an exogenous antioxidant.
Oxaloacetate is a four-carbon organic acid that occupies a central place in cellular metabolism. Best known as a key intermediate of the citric acid cycle, also called the Krebs cycle, it combines with acetyl-CoA to form citrate at the start of the cycle and also feeds gluconeogenesis, the making of new glucose, and the synthesis of several amino acids. Beyond its metabolic role, a stabilized supplement form has been studied for effects such as lowering blood glutamate levels reaching the brain and mimicking aspects of calorie restriction, though these uses remain investigational.
P7C3 is an investigational neuroprotective compound of the aminopropyl carbazole class, studied only in laboratory and animal research. It is proposed to work by boosting cellular NAD+ through activation of the enzyme NAMPT, which helps preserve the survival of newly formed and stressed neurons. In animal models it has shown protective effects in conditions such as stroke, traumatic brain injury, and neurodegeneration, but it is not an approved medicine.
Pal-GHK, also known as palmitoyl tripeptide-1, is a synthetic cosmetic peptide made by attaching a palmitic acid chain to the human tripeptide GHK (glycyl-L-histidyl-L-lysine). The fatty acid tail makes the peptide more lipophilic so it can better penetrate the skin, where GHK-based signals are known to stimulate collagen and support extracellular matrix repair. It is used as a signaling ingredient in anti-aging skincare rather than as a medicine.
Parthenolide is a naturally occurring sesquiterpene lactone found chiefly in the herb feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium). It is regarded as one of the main active constituents behind feverfew's traditional use for migraine, and in the laboratory it is known for blocking the inflammatory signaling protein NF-kB. It has drawn considerable research interest for anticancer activity, including against cancer stem cells, though poor water solubility has limited its development as a drug.
Phloretin is a dihydrochalcone, a naturally occurring plant phenol found in apples, apple tree leaves, and the Manchurian apricot. It is the aglycone of phlorizin, meaning the sugar-free core of that better-known apple compound, and it is studied chiefly as an antioxidant and as an inhibitor of glucose transport across cell membranes. Phloretin appears as an ingredient in some skincare products and is a subject of laboratory research, but it is not an approved medicine.
Phylloquinone, known as vitamin K1, is the plant form of the fat-soluble vitamin K and the type most abundant in the diet, found chiefly in green leafy vegetables. Its central role in the body is to act as a cofactor for the reactions that make blood-clotting proteins functional, and as a medicine, where it is called phytomenadione or phytonadione, it is used to treat and prevent bleeding, including in newborns and after warfarin overdose. It appears on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.
Pomegranate extract is a concentrated preparation made from the fruit, peel or arils of the pomegranate (Punica granatum), valued for its high content of polyphenols. Its most studied constituents are the ellagitannins, especially the punicalagins, together with ellagic acid and the anthocyanin pigments that give pomegranate its red colour. Sold as a dietary supplement in capsule, powder and liquid forms, it is promoted for antioxidant and cardiovascular support, although the strength of the clinical evidence differs by preparation and outcome.
Punicalagins are large polyphenol molecules of the ellagitannin type, found most abundantly in the pomegranate. They are among the compounds responsible for the strong antioxidant activity of pomegranate juice and peel, and in the body they are broken down into ellagic acid and then into gut-derived metabolites called urolithins. Research on punicalagins and their metabolites has examined antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cardiovascular effects, though most of the evidence comes from laboratory and animal studies.
Rehmannia (Rehmannia glutinosa), known in Chinese as dihuang, is a flowering plant traditionally counted among the fundamental herbs of Chinese medicine. Its root, used fresh, dried, or steam-processed, is a staple of many classical herbal formulas. Modern chemical work has identified iridoid glycosides such as catalpol among its main constituents.
Selenomethionine is the organic, amino acid form of selenium, in which a selenium atom replaces the sulfur of the amino acid methionine. It is the principal form of selenium found in plant foods such as cereal grains, Brazil nuts, and legumes, and it is the selenium compound most commonly used in dietary supplements. Because the body cannot fully distinguish it from methionine, it is readily absorbed and can be incorporated directly into proteins, giving it high bioavailability.
Shiitake (Lentinula edodes) is an edible mushroom native to East Asia and mainland Southeast Asia that is now cultivated and eaten worldwide. Prized as a culinary ingredient, it also has a long history in East Asian traditional medicine and is studied for bioactive constituents such as the polysaccharide lentinan. It ranks among the most widely produced cultivated mushrooms globally.
Sodium phenylbutyrate is a short-chain fatty acid that wears two hats. It is a weak inhibitor of histone deacetylases (HDACs; enzymes that strip acetyl tags off the histone "spools" DNA winds around, and taking those tags off tends to switch genes down), and separately it acts as a "chemical chaperone" that helps freshly made proteins fold correctly and eases stress on the endoplasmic reticulum (the ER; the cell's protein-folding factory). It has a long-standing approval for urea cycle disorders, where it works as an ammonia scavenger by opening an alternate route to dump excess nitrogen in the urine. That chaperone side is why researchers keep circling back to it in neurodegeneration; it was also one of the two ingredients (paired with taurursodiol, a bile-acid derivative also called TUDCA) in the ALS combination AMX0035, whose story is a cautionary one described below.
Sonlicromanol (KH176) is an orally active, blood-brain-barrier-penetrant small molecule derived from the vitamin E analog Trolox, developed specifically for inherited mitochondrial disease. It acts as a dual redox modulator, directly scavenging reactive oxygen species and reactivating the peroxiredoxin-thioredoxin antioxidant system, and its active metabolite KH176m additionally suppresses inflammatory prostaglandin production. The compound has advanced through phase 2 clinical trials in adults and children with genetically confirmed mitochondrial disease, including the m.3243A>G mutation that causes MELAS. It is one of the most clinically mature purpose-built mitochondrial protectants of its generation.
Souvenaid is a medical food, taken as a once-daily nutritional drink, that is intended to support the formation of synapses in people with early Alzheimer's disease. It contains a patented mixture of nutrients called Fortasyn Connect, combining omega-3 fatty acids, uridine monophosphate, choline, phospholipids, and several vitamins. Clinical trials have produced mixed results, and systematic reviews have found little convincing effect on cognitive decline, although the product is generally well tolerated.
Sulforaphane is a natural compound in the isothiocyanate family, produced by cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli, especially broccoli sprouts. It is not present in the intact plant but forms when the tissue is damaged, allowing an enzyme to convert its precursor, glucoraphanin, into sulforaphane. It has been studied intensively for potential health effects, chiefly through its activation of the cell's Nrf2 antioxidant defense system, although firm clinical proof of benefit in humans is still limited.
Tau peptide is a loosely used name for short peptide preparations marketed for brain and cognitive support, usually grouped with so-called bioregulator peptides. The label is not well standardized, and the sequences sold under it vary between vendors, so the name says little about the precise contents of a given product. Any connection to tau, the microtubule-associated protein of the nervous system, is largely nominal, and rigorous human data are scarce.
Tetrahydrocurcumin is a colorless compound formed when curcumin, the principal yellow pigment of turmeric, is reduced, and it is one of the main metabolites produced when curcumin is broken down in the body. Chemically it is a hydrogenated curcuminoid; unlike its brightly colored parent it is nearly white, and it tends to be more chemically stable and more readily absorbed [1]. Marketed as a dietary supplement and cosmetic ingredient, tetrahydrocurcumin has been studied mainly for antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity, though most of the evidence comes from laboratory and animal work rather than large human trials [1].
Tocotrienols are a group of naturally occurring compounds that form part of the vitamin E family, alongside the more familiar tocopherols [1]. They occur in four forms, alpha, beta, gamma, and delta, and are found in dietary oils such as palm and rice bran oil. Studied mainly as fat-soluble antioxidants, they have drawn research attention for possible effects on cholesterol, cognition, and cellular health [2][3].
Trigonelline is a plant alkaloid, the N-methylated betaine of niacin (vitamin B3), that exists as a zwitterion. It is found in many foods, notably fenugreek seeds, from which it takes its name, and coffee beans, where roasting breaks it down into niacin and aroma compounds. Trigonelline has drawn research interest for effects on blood sugar and, more recently, as a natural precursor that can raise cellular NAD levels [1][2].
Urolithin B is one of the urolithins, compounds produced by gut bacteria from the ellagitannins and ellagic acid in foods such as pomegranates, walnuts and berries. Chemically it is a monohydroxy dibenzopyranone and a downstream product of the same microbial pathway that yields urolithin A. It has been studied mainly for effects on skeletal muscle, where laboratory and animal work suggests it can promote muscle growth [1][2].
Vatiquinone (EPI-743) is an orally bioavailable para-benzoquinone derived from alpha-tocotrienol, developed as a mitochondrial-protective agent for inherited mitochondrial disease and other disorders driven by oxidative stress. It is structurally related to coenzyme Q10 and idebenone but acts principally by suppressing ferroptotic lipid peroxidation rather than by shuttling electrons in the respiratory chain. The compound inhibits 15-lipoxygenase and restores the reduced glutathione pool, protecting neurons from iron- and lipid-dependent death. It has been evaluated in numerous clinical trials in mitochondrial epilepsy, Friedreich ataxia, and Leigh syndrome, with mixed but occasionally encouraging results on seizure burden.
Vitamin K is a family of fat-soluble vitamins that the body requires as a cofactor for an enzyme that modifies certain proteins so they can bind calcium. Its two natural forms are vitamin K1 (phylloquinone), found in leafy green plants, and vitamin K2 (the menaquinones), made by bacteria and present in some animal and fermented foods. Vitamin K is essential for normal blood clotting and also contributes to bone and vascular biology, and the anticoagulant drug warfarin works by blocking its recycling.
Vorinostat, also known as suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid or SAHA, is an anticancer drug of the histone deacetylase inhibitor class. In 2006 it became the first histone deacetylase inhibitor approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration, indicated for cutaneous T-cell lymphoma that has persisted or returned after other treatments. It is taken by mouth and works by altering the pattern of chemical marks on chromatin, changing which genes cancer cells express.
Xanthohumol is a prenylated chalcone, a type of flavonoid, and the principal such compound in the female flowers of the hop plant (Humulus lupulus). Because hops are used to brew beer, xanthohumol is a natural constituent of beer, usually at very low concentrations. It has been widely studied in the laboratory for antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities, and it is sold as a dietary supplement rather than an approved medicine.
Zeaxanthin is a yellow-orange xanthophyll carotenoid and one of the most widespread carotenoids in nature. In humans it concentrates with lutein in the macula of the retina to form the macular pigment; at the central fovea, where blue-light exposure and oxidative load are highest, the retina enzymatically converts dietary lutein into a third pigment, meso-zeaxanthin, so that additional protection is generated precisely where it is most needed. Obtained from foods such as corn, peppers, saffron, and goji berries, it is used both as a food coloring and as a dietary supplement studied for eye health, with higher macular pigment density also associated with measures of visual and neural processing.
