for educational and safety purposes
Antioxidant and cellular-protection compounds; the polyphenols, carotenoids, and redox agents studied for defense and longevity.
67 sourced · 64 reference
Astaxanthin is a reddish keto-carotenoid of the xanthophyll subgroup, produced by microalgae such as Haematococcus pluvialis and concentrated up the food chain in krill, shrimp, salmon and flamingos, which it colours pink to red. Structurally it is unusual: one molecule spans the full width of a cell membrane, its polar end groups anchored at both surfaces while the chain crosses the lipid interior. It is a potent lipid-soluble antioxidant in the direct sense, but its more durable action is transcriptional; it activates Nrf2, the transcription factor that switches on the cell's own antioxidant enzymes, which is why it is classed as an Nrf2 activator rather than only a scavenger. It is sold as an aquaculture feed pigment and a human supplement, and is studied for skin, ocular, cardiovascular, metabolic and neuroprotective effects.
Emoxypine, best known by its succinate salt Mexidol, is a Russian antioxidant and antihypoxant used widely across the former Soviet states for stroke, cerebrovascular disease, and stress-related conditions [1][2]. It combines free-radical scavenging with membrane-stabilizing and mitochondrial-energy support, and in randomized clinical work it improved recovery after ischemic stroke [1]. For those interested in antioxidant neuroprotection, emoxypine is a long-established and clinically deployed compound with a distinctive dual antioxidant and metabolic profile.
Glutathione is the body's main intracellular antioxidant, a tripeptide that neutralizes free radicals, supplies phase-II liver detoxification, and protects cells and mitochondria from oxidative wear. Whether swallowing it raises the amount in the body is the unsettled question at the center of this compound: a single dose does nothing measurable, while months of daily dosing appear to raise body stores modestly and reversibly. Oral use is well tolerated and produces a small, temporary lightening of sun-exposed skin in controlled trials. Intravenous glutathione sold for skin whitening is a different matter and has drawn regulatory warnings.
NACET is a lipophilic ethyl-ester version of NAC (N-acetylcysteine). The ester makes it far more cell-permeable and orally absorbable than NAC, so more of it reaches tissues, where it is cleaved back to NAC and cysteine and feeds glutathione, the body's main built-in antioxidant.
Pterostilbene is a naturally occurring stilbenoid closely related to resveratrol, from which it differs by carrying two methoxy groups in place of hydroxyl groups. It is found chiefly in blueberries, grapes, and the heartwood of certain trees, where it serves as a defensive phytoalexin. The methoxy substitution makes it substantially more lipophilic, metabolically stable, and blood-brain-barrier permeable than resveratrol; in Alzheimer's-model mice it improved cognition and reduced neuroinflammation at dietary doses that were ineffective for resveratrol, apparently acting through PPAR-alpha rather than the sirtuins. It has been studied in humans in combination with nicotinamide riboside to raise NAD+ levels, and is sold as a dietary supplement rather than an approved medicine.
Resveratrol is a stilbenoid polyphenol produced by several plants as a defensive compound, or phytoalexin, in response to injury or infection. It occurs in the skins of grapes, in red wine, in peanuts, and in berries, and is extracted commercially from Japanese knotweed for use in supplements. It became widely known through research linking it to sirtuin enzymes and the so-called French paradox; in animal studies, activation of the SIRT1 and AMPK pathways induced mitochondrial biogenesis, increased running endurance, and protected against diet-induced metabolic disease. Its relevance in people remains uncertain, as oral bioavailability is very low and at least one trial found that it blunted the cardiovascular benefits of exercise training in older men.
Methylene Blue is a century-old phenothiazine compound that has been reinvented as one of the most intriguing metabolic and cognitive agents in modern research. At low concentrations it functions as a mitochondrial electron cycler, boosting cellular energy production while acting as an antioxidant, effects that underpin growing interest in brain performance and neuroprotection. Backed by an FDA-recognized clinical heritage in emergency medicine, it occupies a rare position bridging established pharmacology and frontier nootropic science.
GHK-Cu + Methylene Blue Tallow Balm is a thoughtfully built topical that stacks three skin-loving actives in a single rub-on jar rather than a needle. The copper peptide GHK-Cu signals collagen and elastin renewal, low-dose methylene blue delivers standout antioxidant and mild antimicrobial support, and a nutrient-rich beef tallow base deeply hydrates while carrying the actives in. For anyone who wants repair, firmness, and antioxidant defense in one gentle, easy-to-use balm, this blend is a genuinely appealing pick.
7,8-Dihydroxyflavone (7,8-DHF), also called tropoflavin, is a naturally occurring flavone studied as a small-molecule mimic of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). It is reported to act as an agonist of tropomyosin receptor kinase B (TrkB), the principal BDNF receptor, binding the receptor's extracellular domain to drive its dimerization and activation, and because it is orally active and crosses the blood-brain barrier it has become a widely used tool compound in neuroscience. Its direct activation of TrkB is not fully settled, however, since some quantitative assays have been unable to reproduce it, and it remains an experimental compound studied in models of depression, Alzheimer's, and other neurological conditions.
Alpha-lipoic acid (ALA), also called lipoic acid or thioctic acid, is a naturally occurring organosulfur compound that serves as an essential cofactor for several mitochondrial enzymes involved in energy metabolism. It is soluble in both water and fat and is widely marketed as a dietary antioxidant supplement, while in some countries a pharmaceutical form is used to treat the symptoms of diabetic neuropathy.
Azoximer bromide, sold across Russia as Polyoxidonium, is a synthetic water-soluble polymer of ethylene piperazine used as an immunomodulator and as a vaccine adjuvant.
Benfotiamine is a synthetic, fat-soluble derivative of thiamine (vitamin B1), created to be absorbed more efficiently than ordinary water-soluble thiamine. Once in the body it is converted to thiamine and raises tissue levels of the active cofactor, which boosts the enzyme transketolase and helps steer excess glucose away from the biochemical pathways that damage tissues in diabetes. It is used, chiefly in Europe, for diabetic nerve pain and is sold elsewhere as a dietary supplement.
Bilberry Forte is a Russian tablet blend of bilberry fruit extract with rutin, zinc and B vitamins, sold for eye strain and visual acuity.
BrainMax is a Russian two ingredient capsule combining meldonium with emoxypine succinate, sold for fatigue, attention and recovery after illness; both ingredients have a substantial Russian literature and essentially no independent international evidence.
Carnosic acid is a phenolic diterpene found in the herbs rosemary (Salvia rosmarinus) and common sage (Salvia officinalis), where it is one of the main compounds responsible for their antioxidant activity. Together with its oxidation product carnosol, it is used commercially as a natural antioxidant food preservative, labeled as rosemary extract (E392). It has been studied extensively for antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective effects, which are largely attributed to its ability to activate the cell's Nrf2 defense pathway.
Carnosine is a naturally occurring dipeptide made of the amino acids beta-alanine and L-histidine, found in high concentrations in skeletal muscle and the brain. It acts inside cells chiefly as a pH buffer during intense exercise and as an antioxidant that also protects proteins from glycation. Because dietary beta-alanine is the limiting ingredient for making it, beta-alanine supplements are commonly used to raise muscle carnosine, and carnosine itself is sold as a supplement studied for exercise, aging, and neurological health.
Chaga is the common name for Inonotus obliquus, a fungus that grows as a hard, blackened mass on birch and other trees in the cold forests of the Northern Hemisphere [1]. Although its charred-looking growth resembles burnt wood, it is actually a sterile mass of fungal tissue rich in melanin, and it has a long history in folk medicine across Russia and northern Europe, where it is often brewed as a tea [1][2]. Modern laboratory research has examined chaga extracts and their polysaccharides for antioxidant, immune, and anticancer activity, but strong clinical evidence in people is lacking, and its very high oxalate content raises safety concerns with heavy or prolonged use [1][2][3].
Cinnamon is a spice obtained from the dried inner bark of several evergreen trees in the genus Cinnamomum. It has been used since antiquity as a fragrant flavoring and in traditional medicine, and it owes its characteristic aroma largely to the compound cinnamaldehyde. Commercial cinnamon falls into two broad groups, the milder Ceylon or true cinnamon and the more common, stronger cassia, which differ markedly in their content of the compound coumarin.
CMS-121 is an experimental drug created by chemically redesigning fisetin, a plant flavonoid; the result is a synthetic quinoline rather than a flavonoid itself, and it is not the same substance as fisetin. In animals it blocks fatty acid synthase, an enzyme that builds fats, and this reduces oxidative damage to the fats in cell membranes; treated mice held onto memory better in models of Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease and accelerated ageing, and also showed improved blood sugar and body weight. Human evidence is limited to a single Phase 1 study in 99 healthy volunteers that asked only whether the drug was tolerated and how the body handled it, not whether it helps anyone; that report remains an unpublished preprint. Almost all of the animal work comes from the one laboratory that invented the compound, no human being has ever been tested for a benefit, and CMS-121 is not approved anywhere for any use.
Coenzyme Q10 (ubiquinone) is a fat-soluble, vitamin-like molecule found in nearly every cell, and it is the only lipid-soluble antioxidant that mammals synthesize for themselves. Within the mitochondria it is the obligatory mobile carrier that shuttles electrons from Complexes I and II to Complex III of the respiratory chain, and it also protects membranes from oxidative damage. It has been studied most in cardiovascular disease, statin-associated muscle symptoms, migraine, and mitochondrial disorders; in the Q-SYMBIO trial, supplementation reduced major cardiovascular events and all-cause mortality in patients with chronic heart failure, and primary CoQ10 deficiency is notable as one of the few mitochondrial disorders treatable by supplementation.
Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) is a berry extract standardized for its A-type proanthocyanidins (PACs), the polyphenols (plant antioxidant compounds) that stop E. coli bacteria from gripping the bladder wall. Its best-earned job is helping PREVENT recurrent urinary tract infections (UTIs); it is not a cure for an active infection, which still needs antibiotics. Concentrated capsules standardized to around 36 mg PACs are far more reliable than juice, which is dilute and loaded with sugar. On top of the urinary angle, it delivers general antioxidant and polyphenol support.
Cyanidin is a naturally occurring flavonoid pigment belonging to the anthocyanidin class, responsible for many of the red, purple, and magenta colors seen in fruits, flowers, and leaves. It is widespread in plants and especially abundant in berries, red cabbage, red grapes, and other deeply colored produce, usually present as sugar-bound forms called anthocyanins such as cyanidin-3-glucoside. Like other anthocyanidins its color shifts with acidity, and it is studied for antioxidant and other biological activities. In food it is recognized as the natural colorant designated E163a.
Cytoflavin is a Russian four component metabolic preparation of succinic acid, inosine, nicotinamide and riboflavin, given as enteric tablets or intravenous infusion for cerebral ischaemia and encephalopathy.
Dihydromyricetin (DHM, also called ampelopsin) is a flavonoid from the oriental raisin tree (Hovenia dulcis) and the vine Ampelopsis grossedentata, used for centuries in East Asian folk medicine as a hangover and liver remedy. It is best known for two overlapping effects: modulating GABA-A receptors to counter alcohol's actions on the brain, and supporting the liver enzymes that clear alcohol. Most of the striking data is preclinical; human trials are still thin.
3,3'-Diindolylmethane (DIM) is the principal acid-condensation product of indole-3-carbinol, formed in the stomach from glucosinolates in cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli, cabbage, and kale. Its most studied action is as a selective aryl hydrocarbon receptor modulator: by engaging the AhR and interacting with estrogen receptor signaling, it influences cytochrome P450 enzymes that direct estrogen metabolism, favoring the 2-hydroxylation pathway over more proliferative metabolites. This dual AhR and estrogen-receptor activity underlies its investigation as a candidate in cancer chemoprevention, alongside reports of antiproliferative and even neuroprotective effects in cell models. The evidence remains largely preclinical and concentration-dependent, with some studies noting that low concentrations can paradoxically stimulate estrogen-receptor-positive cell growth, so its clinical role as a dietary supplement is still being defined.
Dragon fruit (pitaya) is the fruit of several climbing cactus species in the Hylocereus/Selenicereus genus. The red-fleshed types are rich in betalains (betacyanins), the same pigment family that colors beets, alongside soluble and insoluble fiber, some vitamin C, magnesium, and tiny omega-rich seeds. It is eaten mostly as a whole food; its bioactive draw is the betalain antioxidants and the prebiotic fiber, not any single concentrated drug-like compound.
EGCG (epigallocatechin gallate) is the most abundant and most studied catechin in green tea, a flavonoid polyphenol that accounts for much of the leaf's reputation for health. It is a strong antioxidant and metabolic modulator that shows up in the research on fat oxidation, cardiovascular and metabolic health, inflammation, and longevity. Most of its effects are hormetic (a mild stress the body adapts to), and the honest catch is that isolated high-dose EGCG on an empty stomach carries a rare liver-injury signal, so it is best taken with food.
Elderberry is the dark purple fruit of the elder shrub Sambucus nigra, used in folk medicine and sold as a supplement, syrup, or lozenge for colds and influenza. It is rich in anthocyanin pigments and other polyphenols with antioxidant activity. Clinical studies of its effect on respiratory infections have given conflicting results, and it is marketed as a dietary supplement rather than an approved medicine.
Ergothioneine is a naturally occurring, sulfur-containing amino acid derived from histidine. It is produced only by certain fungi, mycobacteria, and cyanobacteria, yet it accumulates to relatively high levels in animals, including humans, who obtain it entirely from the diet. Mushrooms are the richest common food source. Studied mainly for its antioxidant and cell-protective properties, it is sold as a dietary supplement, although its precise physiological role in humans is not yet firmly established.
Exomitin is a topical hydrogel carrying the mitochondria-targeted antioxidant SkQ1, applied to irritated, burned or damaged skin.
Fisetin is a naturally occurring flavonoid, specifically a flavonol, found in fruits and vegetables such as strawberries, apples and onions. It is a yellow plant pigment that acts as an antioxidant and has drawn scientific interest for its potential effects on aging, including an ability to clear senescent cells. It is sold as a dietary supplement, though clinical evidence of benefit in humans remains limited.
Grape seed extract is a dietary supplement produced from the seeds of grapes, Vitis vinifera, that remain after winemaking and juice production. It is rich in proanthocyanidins, a class of polyphenolic flavonoid compounds also known as oligomeric proanthocyanidins, which give the extract strong antioxidant activity in laboratory tests. Marketed for cardiovascular and general antioxidant support, grape seed extract has been studied for effects on blood pressure and blood lipids, with modest findings in some trials.
Hesperidin is a flavanone glycoside (a plant flavonoid bound to a sugar) that is abundant in citrus fruit, especially the peel and white pith of oranges and lemons; its sugar-free form is called hesperetin. It is best understood as a venous and vascular supplement; it is best known as a partner to diosmin for chronic venous insufficiency (poor return of blood from the legs) and hemorrhoids, with lighter support for antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and modest metabolic effects on blood sugar and lipids.
Humanin is a 24-amino-acid mitochondrial-derived peptide and one of the first signaling molecules found to be encoded within the mitochondrial genome rather than the nucleus, translated from a short open reading frame inside the 16S ribosomal RNA region. It was first identified in the surviving neurons of an Alzheimer's-affected brain as a rescue factor, and it is broadly cytoprotective; a well-characterized part of its anti-apoptotic action is that it directly binds the pro-death protein BAX and sequesters it away from the mitochondrial membrane. It has been reported to improve insulin sensitivity, protect the heart against ischemic injury, and correlate with longevity, with higher circulating levels in the offspring of centenarians, and it is studied as a target in aging and neurodegeneration.
Hypoxen is a Russian synthetic polyphenolic antihypoxant sold to improve tolerance of low oxygen and of heavy physical or mental load; it is registered only in Russia and neighbouring states and has never been tested in a trial meeting international standards.
Idebenone is a synthetic analog of coenzyme Q10 (ubiquinone), a short-chain benzoquinone with antioxidant and mitochondrial properties. Originally developed by Takeda for Alzheimer's disease and other cognitive disorders, it is now used mainly as an approved treatment for Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy, a rare inherited cause of vision loss. It has also been studied in other mitochondrial and neuromuscular diseases and is used as an antioxidant ingredient in some skincare products.
Imunofan is a synthetic hexapeptide modelled on a fragment of the thymic hormone thymopoietin, given by injection, nasal spray or suppository as an immunomodulator in Russia.
Indolepropionamide (IPAM) is a naturally occurring indole compound, chemically related to melatonin, that has been studied as a mitochondrial protectant and antioxidant. In laboratory research it was reported to stabilize energy production in mitochondria, lower the output of reactive oxygen species, and extend lifespan in a simple invertebrate model. It remains an investigational substance with limited study rather than an approved medicine.
Isoliquiritigenin is a chalcone-type flavonoid from licorice (Glycyrrhiza) with a bright yellow color and a simple trihydroxychalcone backbone. In lab and animal studies it acts as an antioxidant and anti-inflammatory, activating the Nrf2 pathway while dampening NF-kB and the NLRP3 inflammasome, and it inhibits the aromatase enzyme that makes estrogen. Nearly all of the evidence is preclinical; there is no established human dose and human trial data are essentially absent.
L-Histidine is an essential amino acid built around an imidazole ring, which gives it an unusual set of jobs: it is the direct precursor to histamine and (with beta-alanine) to carnosine, it buffers pH near physiological range, and it chelates divalent metals like iron and copper while scavenging singlet oxygen and hydroxyl radicals. It shows up in food protein and is sold as a standalone supplement. Human outcome data is modest but real for skin barrier (atopic dermatitis) and metabolic markers, with most of its antioxidant reputation resting on biochemistry and preclinical work.
Lutein is a yellow xanthophyll carotenoid found in dark leafy greens, corn, and egg yolks. In the body it concentrates in the macula of the retina, where together with zeaxanthin it forms the macular pigment, and it is also selectively taken up into the brain by the carrier protein StARD3; macular pigment density has been found to correlate with lutein concentrations in the occipital cortex, so retinal measurements can serve as a non-invasive index of brain lutein. It is studied mainly in relation to eye health and, more tentatively, cognition, and is used as a dietary supplement and, in some regions, as the food colorant E161b.
Melatonin is a hormone best known as the body's circadian signal for darkness, produced by the pineal gland to help govern the sleep-wake cycle; taken as a supplement it can shorten the time to fall asleep and is particularly useful for jet lag and shifted schedules. Less familiar is its other identity: melatonin is synthesized inside the mitochondria of virtually every cell, with under five percent of the body's total coming from the pineal gland, and there it acts as a potent, amphiphilic antioxidant whose own breakdown products are also radical scavengers, giving it a cascade effect. It is thought to be one of the oldest antioxidants in biology, predating its later role as a sleep and circadian signal, and it is generally regarded as safe and non-habit-forming for most adults.
Milk thistle (Silybum marianum) is a flowering plant in the daisy family Asteraceae, recognizable by its spiny leaves veined with white and its purple flower heads. Its seeds yield silymarin, a complex of flavonolignans that has been used in traditional medicine for liver complaints since antiquity. Today milk thistle is marketed chiefly as a herbal dietary supplement, and silymarin remains a focus of research into liver protection.
MitoVitan is a face serum built around SkQ1, the mitochondria-targeted antioxidant developed by the Skulachev group.
MitoVitan Active is a concentrated SkQ1 solution meant to be blended into an existing cream or serum.
N-acetylcysteine (NAC) is one of the most versatile and well-evidenced antioxidant compounds available, prized as a direct precursor to glutathione, the body's master intracellular antioxidant. Beyond replenishing glutathione to counter oxidative stress, it fine-tunes glutamate signaling through the cystine-glutamate antiporter, a mechanism that has driven serious clinical research across psychiatry and neurology [1][3]. It is a decades-old hospital staple, serving as the standard antidote for acetaminophen overdose and as a proven mucolytic, all at low cost and with an excellent tolerability record.
Peptide Complex Pro 01 is a leave on skin lotion combining two animal organ peptide extracts with a ginseng derived antioxidant complex and rosemary oil, sold for the heart and arteries; it is a topical cosmetic style mixture rather than a peptide of known sequence.
Peptide Complex Pro 03 is a leave on skin lotion combining a thymus peptide extract with a ginseng derived antioxidant complex and lavender and jasmine oils, sold for immune support; it is a topical mixture rather than a peptide of known sequence.
Quercetin is a plant flavonoid, specifically a flavonol, and one of the most abundant polyphenols in the human diet, found in foods such as onions, apples, capers, berries, and tea. It is a potent antioxidant in laboratory tests and acts as a zinc ionophore, carrying zinc across cell membranes, and it is best known in aging research as one half of the original senolytic combination, dasatinib plus quercetin, which clears senescent cells and has entered first-in-human trials. Oral quercetin is nonetheless poorly absorbed, and it has not been shown in humans to treat or prevent any disease; it is sold as a dietary supplement.
R-alpha-lipoic acid is the naturally occurring form of alpha-lipoic acid, a sulfur-containing compound that the body uses as an essential cofactor in energy metabolism and that also acts as an antioxidant. Alpha-lipoic acid exists as two mirror-image forms, and only the R version is made and used by living cells, whereas most synthetic supplements contain an equal mixture of the R and S forms. Sold as a dietary supplement and, in some countries, as a medicine for diabetic nerve pain, the R form is often promoted as the more biologically active and better absorbed of the two.
This product pairs R-alpha-lipoic acid, the naturally occurring enantiomer, with a dose of biotin.
Revilab Anti-A.G.E. is an oral antioxidant capsule aimed at glycation of skin collagen and elastin.
Rosemary extract is a concentrated preparation of the culinary herb Rosmarinus officinalis (now often classed as Salvia rosmarinus). Its active fraction is dominated by two polyphenols; carnosic acid, a fat-soluble diterpene that activates the body's own antioxidant defenses, and rosmarinic acid, a water-soluble caffeic acid ester. The plant's volatile oil also carries 1,8-cineole, the aromatic component tied to rosemary's cognitive reputation. It's studied mostly for memory support, antioxidant activity, and mild mood effects.
S-Acetyl Glutathione is an acetylated form of glutathione, the body's principal intracellular antioxidant. It is used as a dietary supplement intended to raise glutathione levels, and the acetyl group is meant to make the molecule more stable and better absorbed than ordinary glutathione when taken by mouth. Once inside cells the acetyl group is removed, releasing active glutathione.
Selenium is an essential trace element required in small amounts for human health, where it is built into a family of proteins called selenoproteins. These selenoproteins, which include the antioxidant enzyme glutathione peroxidase, thioredoxin reductase, and the deiodinases that regulate thyroid hormone, give selenium roles in antioxidant defense, immune function, and thyroid metabolism. Its relationship with health follows a U-shaped curve, since both deficiency and excess are harmful.
SkQ1 is a mitochondria-targeted antioxidant, a synthetic compound built by attaching the plant antioxidant plastoquinone to a positively charged carrier that accumulates inside mitochondria. Developed by a Russian team led by Vladimir Skulachev, it is designed to neutralize reactive oxygen species at their main source and has been studied for aging and age-related conditions. Its best-known application is a dilute eye-drop formulation approved in Russia to treat dry eye syndrome.
Sodium thiosulfate is an inorganic sulfur donor given intravenously as a cyanide antidote, and used off label for calciphylaxis in dialysis patients and to protect hearing during cisplatin chemotherapy.
SS-31, also known as elamipretide or Bendavia, is a cell-permeable mitochondria-targeting tetrapeptide that concentrates thousands-fold on the inner mitochondrial membrane by binding cardiolipin, the lipid that organizes the cristae and the electron-transport supercomplexes. Rather than acting as a general antioxidant, it restores cristae structure and bioenergetics in mitochondria damaged by ischemia, disease, or aging; in aged mouse muscle a single dose restored ATP production toward youthful levels within about an hour. It has been evaluated in clinical trials for primary mitochondrial diseases, heart failure, and age-related conditions.
Tart cherry (Prunus cerasus, usually the Montmorency variety) extract is a whole-fruit polyphenol (a broad class of plant antioxidant compounds) supplement loaded with anthocyanins (the red-purple flavonoid pigments that give the fruit its color) plus a naturally small dose of melatonin (the hormone that signals darkness to your body clock). It reads as a gentle food-derived antioxidant and anti-inflammatory rather than a hard-hitting drug; that mild profile is exactly why people reach for it. The three areas with the most human data are sleep quality, recovery from hard exercise (less soreness, faster return of strength), and lowering uric acid to ease gout. The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory action is the common thread running under all three. It comes as concentrate (a thick juice syrup), powder, or capsules, and potency swings wildly between products; that variability is the single biggest thing to watch.
Tiger Milk Mushroom is a polypore from Malaysia and neighbouring parts of South East Asia, and the part sold is the sclerotium, a dense underground storage body rather than the cap. Indigenous communities in Malaysia have used it for cough, asthma and general stamina for centuries, and the name comes from the story that it grows where a tigress dripped milk. It was effectively unbuyable until the 2010s because it could not be farmed; wild sclerotia were rare enough to be a luxury item. A Malaysian company then succeeded in cultivating it by solid-state fermentation, which is why almost every product on the market is the same cultivar, TM02, and why almost every study names that cultivar too.
Trekrezan is a Russian actoprotector and adaptogen (a synthetic agent that raises the body's nonspecific resistance to physical, thermal, and hypoxic stress) that also acts as an immunomodulator and antioxidant. Chemically it is tris(2-hydroxyethyl)ammonium 2-methylphenoxyacetate, the triethanolamine salt of ortho-cresoxyacetic acid (molecular formula C15H25NO6), and the same active substance is marketed in agriculture and microbiology under the name Crezacin. It was developed by the school of academician Mikhail Voronkov at the Irkutsk Institute of Organic Chemistry, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, and has been studied primarily in rodent models with a smaller body of human cold-exposure data. Rather than binding a single receptor, Trekrezan is characterized as an energy-stabilizing, meteoadaptogenic compound that shifts stressed tissue metabolism back toward aerobic ATP production, strengthens enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant defenses, and modulates humoral immunity and hematopoiesis.
Curcumin is a bright yellow polyphenol, the principal curcuminoid of turmeric, the spice ground from the rhizome of Curcuma longa in the ginger family. It has long been used as a food colouring and flavouring and is widely sold as a herbal supplement, but it is chemically unstable and very poorly absorbed by mouth. In medicinal chemistry it is regarded as a difficult, likely misleading lead compound, and despite extensive study no rigorous clinical trial has established it as an effective medical treatment [1][2].
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is a water-soluble essential nutrient that humans cannot synthesize; it acts as an antioxidant and as a cofactor for iron- and copper-dependent enzymes, including the prolyl hydroxylases required for collagen synthesis and the TET dioxygenases and histone demethylases that shape the epigenome. At the millimolar plasma concentrations achievable only by intravenous infusion, ascorbate paradoxically behaves as a pro-oxidant, generating hydrogen peroxide that selectively stresses tumor cells; in KRAS or BRAF mutant colorectal cells, uptake of the oxidized form depletes glutathione and inactivates GAPDH, producing a lethal energetic crisis. High-dose intravenous ascorbate is therefore under active investigation as an adjunct in oncology and, through restoration of TET2 activity, in certain hematologic malignancies, whereas randomized trials such as LOVIT have tempered enthusiasm for its routine use in sepsis. Chronic dietary deficiency causes scurvy, reflecting the vitamin's indispensable role in connective-tissue integrity.
Vitamin E is the collective name for a group of eight fat-soluble compounds, four tocopherols and four tocotrienols, of which alpha-tocopherol is the form the body preferentially retains and the one with the greatest vitamin activity. Its principal role is as a lipid-soluble antioxidant that protects cell membranes from damage by free radicals. Vitamin E is found in vegetable oils, nuts, seeds, and green vegetables, and dietary deficiency is rare, usually resulting from disorders of fat absorption rather than low intake.
Glutathione and kojic acid is a combination of two agents used together in cosmetic skin-lightening and brightening products. Glutathione is a naturally occurring antioxidant tripeptide that can shift melanin production toward lighter pigments, while kojic acid is a fungal-derived compound that inhibits tyrosinase, the key enzyme in melanin synthesis. Marketed in creams, soaps, and oral supplements, the pairing is intended to reduce hyperpigmentation and even out skin tone, although the strength of the clinical evidence varies.
Glutathione, kojic acid, and glycolic acid is a three-ingredient combination used in cosmetic skin-lightening and brightening formulations. It joins two agents that reduce melanin production, the antioxidant peptide glutathione and the tyrosinase inhibitor kojic acid, with glycolic acid, an alpha-hydroxy acid that exfoliates the surface of the skin. The blend is designed to fade hyperpigmentation and improve skin tone and texture by combining pigment-reducing and exfoliating actions.
Bemethyl, also known as bemitil, is a synthetic benzimidazole developed in the Soviet Union and classified as an actoprotector, a drug intended to boost physical working capacity and resistance to stress. Rather than scavenging free radicals directly, it works largely by increasing the cell's own synthesis of antioxidant and gluconeogenic enzymes, an RNA- and protein-synthesis-based mechanism that also supports energy metabolism and heat and hypoxia tolerance. Marketed in Russia under names such as Metaprot and reportedly used by Soviet athletes and cosmonauts, it is little known in Western medicine and is monitored, though not banned, in sport.
Allyl isothiocyanate (AITC), the pungent principle of mustard, horseradish and wasabi, is a dietary isothiocyanate and a potent agonist of the TRPA1 sensory ion channel. It induces phase II detoxification enzymes, shows cancer chemopreventive activity concentrated in the urinary bladder, and drives TRPA1-dependent sensory and vascular responses.
Anserine is a naturally occurring dipeptide made of beta-alanine and the amino acid 3-methylhistidine, a methylated relative of carnosine. It is found in the skeletal muscle and brain of many animals, especially fish and poultry, though it is present in only small amounts in human tissue. Like carnosine, it acts as an antioxidant and pH buffer, and it is sold as a supplement, usually together with carnosine, and studied mainly for effects on aging and cognition.
Beta-carotene is an orange-red plant pigment and the best-known provitamin A carotenoid, meaning the body can convert it into vitamin A. It is abundant in carrots, sweet potatoes, and dark leafy greens, and is used both as a natural food coloring and as a supplement. While beta-carotene from food is healthful, large trials found that high-dose beta-carotene supplements actually raised the risk of lung cancer in smokers, an important cautionary lesson in nutrition science.
C60 fullerene, also called buckminsterfullerene, is a spherical molecule made of sixty carbon atoms arranged in a hollow cage of hexagons and pentagons. It is an allotrope of carbon, discovered in 1985, and its soccer-ball shape earned it a name honoring the architect Buckminster Fuller. In biomedical research it has been studied mainly for its antioxidant and free-radical-scavenging properties.
Carvacrol is a monoterpenoid phenol best known as the compound that gives oregano its characteristic warm, pungent aroma. It occurs in the essential oils of oregano, thyme, savory, and related plants of the mint family, and is used as a food flavoring and fragrance ingredient. Carvacrol has been studied extensively for antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activity, with its ability to disrupt bacterial cell membranes making it of particular interest as a natural preservative.
Chlorella is a genus of single-celled green freshwater algae, widely sold as a nutrient-dense dietary supplement and health food [1][2]. Its tiny spherical cells are packed with protein, chlorophyll, vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients, and the dried biomass is taken as tablets or powder [1][2]. First described in the late nineteenth century, Chlorella became well known as a model organism in photosynthesis research and as a proposed answer to food shortages; today it is studied for possible effects on cholesterol, blood sugar, and oxidative stress, though robust clinical proof of health benefits is limited [1][2][3].
Chlorogenic acid is a natural polyphenol, formed as an ester of caffeic acid and quinic acid, that is found in many plants and is especially abundant in coffee [1][2]. Despite its name it contains no chlorine; the term refers to the light green tint it forms when oxidized [1]. It is one of the main phenolic compounds in the human diet, obtained from coffee, fruits, and vegetables, and standardized green coffee extracts rich in it are sold as supplements for weight and metabolic health [1][3]. Laboratory work points to antioxidant activity, and some clinical studies suggest modest effects on blood pressure and metabolism, but the overall evidence remains preliminary [1][3][4].
Chlorophyll is the green pigment that plants, algae, and cyanobacteria use to capture light for photosynthesis [1]. Chemically it is built around a magnesium-containing ring related to the one in the blood pigment heme, and it absorbs red and blue light while reflecting green, which gives foliage its color [1]. Beyond its central biological role, chlorophyll and its water-soluble semisynthetic derivative chlorophyllin are used as food colorings and dietary supplements, and chlorophyllin has been studied for antioxidant and cancer-preventive effects [1][2][4].
Cinnamon extract is a concentrated, standardized preparation made from the bark of Cinnamomum trees, intended to deliver the spice's active compounds in supplement form. It is used mainly for blood sugar and metabolic support, and depending on the extraction method it may concentrate the water-soluble polyphenols while reducing the fat-soluble compound coumarin. Clinical results for glucose control are modest and inconsistent.
Clitoria ternatea is a perennial climbing legume of the family Fabaceae, widely known as butterfly pea or blue pea for its vivid blue flowers [1][5]. Native to equatorial Asia, it is now grown across the tropics as an ornamental, a nitrogen-fixing cover crop, and a source of natural blue food colouring [1][5]. In the traditional medicine of South Asia it has long been used as a memory tonic, and modern laboratory studies have examined its extracts for effects on cognition and the nervous system [2][6].
Cordycepin, also known as 3'-deoxyadenosine, is a nucleoside analog of adenosine in which the hydroxyl group at the 3' position of the sugar is replaced by hydrogen. It was first isolated in 1950 from the entomopathogenic fungus Cordyceps militaris, and it also occurs in related fungi and can now be produced synthetically. Because it closely resembles adenosine, cordycepin can slip into biochemical pathways in place of the natural nucleoside, an ability that underlies its studied antitumor, anti-inflammatory, and antiviral properties.
Deazaflavin (5-deazaflavin) is a redox-active analog of the flavin cofactor in which the nitrogen at position 5 of the isoalloxazine ring is replaced by carbon. This substitution shifts its chemistry toward two-electron hydride transfer, giving it distinctive self-redox and cofactor-like behaviour that is exploited in nature (for example as coenzyme F420 in certain microbes) and, in medicinal chemistry, as the parent scaffold for mitochondria-targeted derivatives such as TND1128 [1].
Decylubiquinone is a short-chain synthetic analog of coenzyme Q10 in which the long polyisoprenoid tail is replaced by a simple ten-carbon decyl chain, yielding a redox-active ubiquinone with greater aqueous handling and cell permeability. It participates in mitochondrial electron transport as a ubiquinone surrogate and can enhance respiratory complex activity, while also acting as a reactive-oxygen-species scavenger that blocks the redox-triggered mitochondrial permeability transition. Widely employed as a laboratory ubiquinone standard, it has been proposed as a candidate antioxidant along the same lines as idebenone. It is chiefly a research compound rather than a marketed supplement.
Dexpramipexole (KNS-760704) is the R-enantiomer of the dopamine agonist pramipexole, stripped of most dopaminergic activity and repurposed as a mitochondrial bioenergetic agent. It binds the F1Fo ATP synthase and increases mitochondrial ATP production, and it is brain-penetrant, orally active, and generally well tolerated. Despite a promising phase 2 signal in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, it failed to beat placebo in the large phase 3 EMPOWER trial, though preclinical work continued to show bioenergetic protection in stroke models. Its enantiomeric relationship to a marketed Parkinson drug and its ATP-synthase mechanism make it a distinctive entry in the mitochondrial nootropic and neuroprotection landscape.
Diacca is diAcCA, the di-acetylated form of carnosic acid, the phenolic diterpene that gives rosemary and sage most of their pharmacology. Purified carnosic acid oxidises readily and is too unstable to develop as a drug, which is the problem the acetyl groups solve: they make a stable solid that converts back to carnosic acid in the stomach before anything is absorbed [1]. What then circulates is carnosic acid, a pro-electrophile that becomes an electrophilic quinone under oxidation and alkylates cysteine thiols on Keap1, releasing Nrf2 to turn on the phase 2 antioxidant genes [2]. The compound was built at Scripps specifically as an Alzheimer's candidate, and in 5xFAD transgenic mice given it for three months it rescued synapses, improved water maze learning and reduced amyloid plaque, phospho-tau aggregates and glial inflammation [1]. That paper is the whole published record for diAcCA itself. Everything else known about the molecule is known about carnosic acid, which is a fair inference here because carnosic acid is what the prodrug becomes, but it is still an inference.
Erinacine C is a cyathane diterpenoid from Hericium erinaceus mycelium and one of the more potent members of the erinacine series for inducing nerve growth factor synthesis. Beyond neurotrophic activity, it is distinguished by a well-characterized anti-neuroinflammatory profile: in microglial models it suppresses nitric oxide and pro-inflammatory cytokine production while activating the cytoprotective Nrf2/HO-1 pathway. It is investigated as a natural neuroprotective lead for conditions driven by microglial activation and oxidative stress.
Erucin is a dietary isothiocyanate found in arugula (rocket) and other cruciferous vegetables, and is the reduced sulfide analog of sulforaphane. It donates hydrogen sulfide, activates Nrf2-linked antioxidant defenses and shows antiproliferative activity in preclinical cancer models; erucin and sulforaphane interconvert in the body.
Ethomersol is a benzimidazole actoprotector and antihypoxant (5-ethoxy-2-ethylthio-1H-benzimidazole) developed within the Soviet military-medical pharmacology school as the lipophilic 5-ethoxy analog of bemitil. As an actoprotector it is designed to raise and sustain physical and mental work capacity under adverse conditions without increasing oxygen consumption or heat production, placing it in the same "synthetic adaptogen" class as bemitil and bromantane. It belongs to the aliphatic and cyclic aminothiol lineage synthesized by F.Yu. Rachinsky and studied under V.M. Vinogradov at the S.M. Kirov Military Medical Academy, alongside gutimin, amtizole and bemitil. Rather than acting on a classical receptor, it normalizes cellular energy metabolism during oxygen deficit, acts as a direct antioxidant, and stimulates adaptive protein synthesis, giving it combined antihypoxic, antioxidant, energotropic and reparative activity documented in preclinical models of hypoxia, toxic injury, and traumatic brain injury.
Ferulic acid is a naturally occurring plant compound, a type of hydroxycinnamic acid, best known as a dietary antioxidant. It is abundant in the cell walls of grains, seeds and other plants, where it is bound to fibers and helps give the walls their rigidity. It is widely used as an antioxidant ingredient in foods and in skincare products, often paired with vitamins C and E.
Fucoxanthin is a natural orange-brown pigment of the carotenoid family, found in brown seaweeds and in the microscopic algae called diatoms. In these organisms it is a light-harvesting pigment, capturing light energy for photosynthesis and giving brown algae their characteristic colour. It has been studied for a variety of possible health effects, most notably antioxidant activity and a role in fat metabolism, and it is sold as a dietary supplement made from brown seaweed. Its usefulness in people is limited by its low absorption from the gut.
Fulvic acid is not a single chemical but a naturally occurring mixture of organic molecules, one of the components of the dark material called humic substances that forms as plant and microbial matter decomposes in soil, water, and sediment. It is distinguished from the related humic acid by its smaller molecules and its ability to dissolve in water across the whole range of acidity. Long used in agriculture as a soil conditioner, it is also sold as a dietary supplement with a variety of health claims and is a major component of the traditional substance shilajit. Human evidence for its supplemental benefits remains limited.
Gamma-tocopherol is one of the four tocopherol forms of vitamin E and the form that predominates in the diet in the United States. Chemically it is a fat-soluble antioxidant that differs from the better-known alpha-tocopherol by a single methyl group on its ring, a small difference that gives it distinctive chemical behavior [1][2]. It is plentiful in many plant seed oils and nuts and is also used as a food additive, designated E308.
Genistein is a naturally occurring isoflavone, a type of plant polyphenol that behaves as a phytoestrogen. It is found chiefly in soybeans and other legumes and was first isolated in 1899 from dyer's broom, the plant from which it takes its name. Because its structure resembles the hormone estradiol, it can interact with estrogen receptors, and it is also a well-studied inhibitor of tyrosine kinase enzymes [1][2].
Hawthorn is the common name for Crataegus, a large genus of thorny shrubs and small trees in the rose family, Rosaceae, found across the temperate Northern Hemisphere. The leaves, flowers, and small red fruits, or haws, carry a long history in herbal medicine, most prominently as a remedy for the heart and circulation. Standardized leaf-and-flower extracts have been studied as an adjunct treatment for chronic heart failure, with mixed results.
Humic acid is one of the main fractions of humic substances, the dark, complex organic material that forms when plant and microbial matter decomposes in soil, peat, and coal. It is defined operationally as the portion of humic matter that dissolves under alkaline conditions but precipitates in strong acid. Long valued in agriculture as a soil conditioner, humic acid has also been the subject of biomedical research into anti-inflammatory and antiviral activities, and it appears in some dietary supplements alongside fulvic acid.
Hydroxytyrosol is a phenolic phytochemical found in olives, olive oil and olive leaves, valued chiefly for its strong antioxidant activity. Chemically a catechol-type phenylethanoid, it is one of the main polyphenols behind the health reputation of the Mediterranean diet. It is sold as a dietary supplement and food ingredient and is a subject of research into cardiovascular and anti-inflammatory effects.
Kaempferol is a naturally occurring flavonoid, specifically a flavonol, found widely across the plant kingdom and in many common foods such as kale, broccoli, onions, tea, and berries. Chemically it is a yellow crystalline solid known as 3,4',5,7-tetrahydroxyflavone, and it is one of the main flavonols in the human diet [1]. It has been studied extensively in the laboratory for antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and other biological activities [1][2].
Liposomal vitamin C is a dietary-supplement form of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) in which the vitamin is packaged inside microscopic fat bubbles called liposomes. The encapsulation is intended to protect the vitamin as it passes through the digestive tract and to improve how much of it reaches the bloodstream compared with ordinary vitamin C. Vitamin C itself is an essential nutrient and antioxidant that the body cannot make on its own.
Lycopene is a bright red carotenoid pigment found most abundantly in tomatoes and other red fruits such as watermelon and pink grapefruit. Chemically it is a tetraterpene hydrocarbon, and unlike some carotenoids it has no vitamin A activity. It is valued as a dietary antioxidant and as a natural food colorant, and it has been studied for possible roles in prostate and cardiovascular health, though the clinical evidence is mixed.
Mitochonic Acid 5 (MA-5) is a synthetic indole-3-acetic acid derivative that boosts cellular ATP production through a mechanism independent of the classical electron transport chain. Rather than shuttling electrons, it binds the inner-membrane crista-junction protein mitofilin and promotes oligomerization of ATP synthase and formation of respiratory supercomplexes, improving the efficiency of energy generation while lowering reactive oxygen species. It rescued survival of fibroblasts from patients with diverse mitochondrial diseases and improved renal, cardiac, and muscle outcomes in animal and cell models. It is an investigational mitochondrial homing compound of unusual mechanistic interest.
MitoQ, known chemically as mitoquinone or mitoquinol mesylate, is a mitochondria-targeted antioxidant derived from coenzyme Q10. It couples the antioxidant quinone of coenzyme Q10 to a positively charged triphenylphosphonium ion, a modification that drives the molecule to accumulate inside mitochondria, where much of the cell's harmful reactive oxygen species is generated. Developed in New Zealand in the late 1990s, it is sold as a dietary supplement and has been studied in a range of conditions linked to oxidative stress and aging.
MitoTEMPO is a mitochondria-targeted superoxide dismutase mimetic created by conjugating the nitroxide antioxidant TEMPO to a lipophilic triphenylphosphonium cation. The positively charged phosphonium moiety drives the molecule to accumulate several-hundred-fold inside the negatively charged mitochondrial matrix, where the nitroxide catalytically scavenges superoxide and alkyl radicals at their principal source. It is one of the most widely used experimental tools for testing whether mitochondrial reactive oxygen species drive a given disease process, and it has shown therapeutic effects in preclinical models of hypertension, ferroptosis, and inflammation. It is a research reagent rather than a clinical drug.
Myricetin is a naturally occurring flavonoid of the flavonol subclass, a plant pigment found in many fruits, vegetables, berries, teas and wines. Closely related in structure to quercetin, it is studied chiefly for antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity and a broad range of other effects observed in the laboratory. It is not a drug but a dietary compound, consumed in ordinary foods and sold as a supplement.
NADH is the reduced form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+), a coenzyme found in all living cells that carries electrons in the reactions of energy metabolism. By shuttling reducing equivalents into the mitochondrial electron transport chain, it is central to the production of ATP, the cell's energy currency. NADH is also sold as a dietary supplement, most often promoted for energy and fatigue, although clinical evidence for oral supplementation is limited and mixed.
Olesoxime (TRO19622) is an orally active, brain-penetrant cholesterol-oxime developed as a mitochondrial-targeted neuroprotectant. It concentrates at the outer mitochondrial membrane, binds the translocator protein TSPO and the voltage-dependent anion channel VDAC, and prevents opening of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore under oxidative and calcium stress. Originally identified for its ability to keep motor neurons alive when deprived of neurotrophic factors, it was advanced through clinical trials in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and spinal muscular atrophy. Although pivotal endpoints were not met, its favorable safety and clean mechanism keep it a reference compound for permeability-transition-pore-targeted neuroprotection.
Oleuropein is a phenolic compound of the secoiridoid class and one of the main polyphenols of the olive tree. It is found in olive leaves, in olives, and in smaller amounts in olive oil, and it is chiefly responsible for the bitter taste of unprocessed olives. Structurally it combines the antioxidant hydroxytyrosol with elenolic acid and a sugar unit. It has been studied for a range of biological activities, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cardiovascular effects, and is regarded as a dietary and research compound rather than an approved medicine.
Olive leaf extract is a herbal preparation made from the leaves of the olive tree, Olea europaea, and sold as a dietary supplement. The leaves are rich in polyphenols, above all oleuropein and its relative hydroxytyrosol, which are considered the extract's main active constituents. Olive leaves have a long history in Mediterranean folk medicine, where they were brewed as a tea for fever and other complaints. Modern research, including several small clinical trials, has examined the extract mainly for effects on blood pressure, blood lipids, and blood sugar, though the overall evidence remains limited.
Omaveloxolone (RTA-408, brand name Skyclarys) is an orally active synthetic oleanane triterpenoid that pharmacologically activates the master antioxidant transcription factor Nrf2 while suppressing NF-kappaB-driven inflammation. By restoring Nrf2 signaling, which is chronically suppressed in Friedreich ataxia, it targets the intertwined oxidative, inflammatory, and bioenergetic deficits that impair mitochondrial ATP production. It became the first therapy approved for Friedreich ataxia in the United States after the MOXIe trial demonstrated meaningful improvement in neurological function. It represents the mitochondrial-longevity strategy of upregulating endogenous antioxidant defenses rather than supplying an exogenous antioxidant.
Phenethyl isothiocyanate (PEITC) is a dietary isothiocyanate released from the glucosinolate gluconasturtiin in cruciferous vegetables such as watercress. It activates the Nrf2 antioxidant pathway, induces phase II detoxification enzymes and is studied as a cancer chemopreventive phytochemical.
Phloretin is a dihydrochalcone, a naturally occurring plant phenol found in apples, apple tree leaves, and the Manchurian apricot. It is the aglycone of phlorizin, meaning the sugar-free core of that better-known apple compound, and it is studied chiefly as an antioxidant and as an inhibitor of glucose transport across cell membranes. Phloretin appears as an ingredient in some skincare products and is a subject of laboratory research, but it is not an approved medicine.
Piceatannol is a stilbenoid, a naturally occurring plant polyphenol closely related to resveratrol, from which it differs by a single extra hydroxyl group. It is found in grapes, red wine, passion fruit seeds, and other plants, and the body can also form it from resveratrol. Studied mainly in the laboratory, it has drawn interest for antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities and as an inhibitor of the enzyme Syk kinase, but it remains a research compound rather than an approved medicine.
Pomegranate extract is a concentrated preparation made from the fruit, peel or arils of the pomegranate (Punica granatum), valued for its high content of polyphenols. Its most studied constituents are the ellagitannins, especially the punicalagins, together with ellagic acid and the anthocyanin pigments that give pomegranate its red colour. Sold as a dietary supplement in capsule, powder and liquid forms, it is promoted for antioxidant and cardiovascular support, although the strength of the clinical evidence differs by preparation and outcome.
Punicalagins are large polyphenol molecules of the ellagitannin type, found most abundantly in the pomegranate. They are among the compounds responsible for the strong antioxidant activity of pomegranate juice and peel, and in the body they are broken down into ellagic acid and then into gut-derived metabolites called urolithins. Research on punicalagins and their metabolites has examined antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and cardiovascular effects, though most of the evidence comes from laboratory and animal studies.
Pycnogenol is a trademarked dietary supplement made from the bark of the French maritime pine, Pinus pinaster, standardized to a high content of procyanidins. Rich in plant polyphenols that act as antioxidants, it is marketed for a wide range of conditions from circulation problems to skin health. Independent reviews of the clinical trials, however, have concluded that the evidence is not strong enough to confirm a benefit for any specific disorder. It is sold as a supplement rather than an approved medicine.
Quercetin Phytosome is a formulated version of the dietary flavonoid quercetin in which the molecule is combined with phospholipids to make it far easier for the body to absorb. Ordinary quercetin is only minimally taken up when swallowed, and the phytosome delivery system was developed to overcome this limitation, raising blood levels of quercetin many times over. Sold as a dietary supplement, it has been studied mainly as a more bioavailable way to deliver quercetin's antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, including in trials during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Rhoifolin is a naturally occurring flavone glycoside, chemically apigenin 7-O-neohesperidoside, belonging to the flavonoid group of plant compounds. It was first isolated from the leaves of Rhus succedanea, which gave it its name, and is found in a range of plants including citrus species. Laboratory research has reported antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and other bioactivities, though it has not been developed into a medicine.
Rose hip is the fruit of the rose plant, the small berry-like structure left behind after the flower fades, and rose hip extract is the concentrated preparation made from it. The fruit of species such as Rosa canina is rich in vitamin C, carotenoids, polyphenols, and a fatty acid derivative known as GOPO. Powders and extracts made from rose hip are used as foods and dietary supplements, and they have been studied mainly for joint pain in osteoarthritis.
Rosmarinic acid is a natural polyphenol, specifically an ester of caffeic acid, found in many culinary herbs. It is abundant in plants of the mint and borage families, including rosemary, lemon balm, sage, and basil, where it appears to serve as a defensive compound. Valued for its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, it is used as a food flavoring and preservative, in cosmetics, and as a dietary supplement.
Rutin is a flavonoid, specifically a glycoside formed from the flavonol quercetin joined to the sugar rutinose. It occurs widely in plants, with notably high levels in buckwheat, and is also found in citrus fruits, tea, apples, and many vegetables. Sold as a dietary supplement and used in some vasoprotective preparations, it is studied mainly for its antioxidant properties and its possible effects on veins and capillaries.
Schisandra chinensis, known as magnolia berry, five-flavor berry, or wu wei zi, is a deciduous woody vine native to East Asia whose red berries have been used for centuries in traditional Chinese and Russian medicine. It is classified as an adaptogen, a plant said to help the body resist stress, and its activity is attributed to a family of dibenzocyclooctadiene lignans such as schisandrin and the gomisins. Research has focused on its liver-protective, antioxidant, and central nervous system effects.
Selenomethionine is the organic, amino acid form of selenium, in which a selenium atom replaces the sulfur of the amino acid methionine. It is the principal form of selenium found in plant foods such as cereal grains, Brazil nuts, and legumes, and it is the selenium compound most commonly used in dietary supplements. Because the body cannot fully distinguish it from methionine, it is readily absorbed and can be incorporated directly into proteins, giving it high bioavailability.
Silybin, also called silibinin, is a flavonolignan that is the principal active constituent of silymarin, a standardized extract of milk thistle (Silybum marianum). It is used and studied mainly for liver protection, including as an intravenous antidote for poisoning by Amanita mushrooms and as an adjunct in chronic liver disease. Its clinical evidence is mixed, and poor water solubility limits the absorption of oral forms.
Sodium ascorbate is the sodium salt of ascorbic acid (vitamin C), a mineral form of the vitamin that is less acidic than plain ascorbic acid. It is used as a dietary supplement, as a food additive (E301) that acts as an antioxidant and preservative, and as a buffered source of vitamin C for people who find the acid form irritating. Like all forms of vitamin C, it supplies ascorbate, an essential nutrient and antioxidant.
Sonlicromanol (KH176) is an orally active, blood-brain-barrier-penetrant small molecule derived from the vitamin E analog Trolox, developed specifically for inherited mitochondrial disease. It acts as a dual redox modulator, directly scavenging reactive oxygen species and reactivating the peroxiredoxin-thioredoxin antioxidant system, and its active metabolite KH176m additionally suppresses inflammatory prostaglandin production. The compound has advanced through phase 2 clinical trials in adults and children with genetically confirmed mitochondrial disease, including the m.3243A>G mutation that causes MELAS. It is one of the most clinically mature purpose-built mitochondrial protectants of its generation.
Spirulina is a dietary supplement made from the dried biomass of cyanobacteria, single-celled organisms often called blue-green algae, chiefly species of the genus Arthrospira. Rich in protein, B vitamins, iron, and the blue pigment phycocyanin, it has a long history of use as a food and is sold today as powder, tablets, and capsules. Marketed for a wide array of health benefits, it has modest supporting evidence for effects on blood lipids and body weight, while broader claims are not well established and contamination of some products is a recognized concern.
Sulforaphane is a natural compound in the isothiocyanate family, produced by cruciferous vegetables such as broccoli, especially broccoli sprouts. It is not present in the intact plant but forms when the tissue is damaged, allowing an enzyme to convert its precursor, glucoraphanin, into sulforaphane. It has been studied intensively for potential health effects, chiefly through its activation of the cell's Nrf2 antioxidant defense system, although firm clinical proof of benefit in humans is still limited.
Tetrahydrocurcumin is a colorless compound formed when curcumin, the principal yellow pigment of turmeric, is reduced, and it is one of the main metabolites produced when curcumin is broken down in the body. Chemically it is a hydrogenated curcuminoid; unlike its brightly colored parent it is nearly white, and it tends to be more chemically stable and more readily absorbed [1]. Marketed as a dietary supplement and cosmetic ingredient, tetrahydrocurcumin has been studied mainly for antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity, though most of the evidence comes from laboratory and animal work rather than large human trials [1].
Tetramethoxyluteolin, also called methoxyluteolin, is a synthetic methylated derivative of the natural flavonoid luteolin, in which luteolin's four hydroxyl groups are replaced by methoxy groups, giving 3',4',5,7-tetramethoxyflavone. It is an investigational anti-inflammatory compound studied chiefly for its ability to inhibit human mast cells and other immune cells that drive allergic and inflammatory responses [2][3]. The methoxy substitution is intended to improve the molecule's stability and its ability to cross cell membranes compared with luteolin, and the compound has been examined mainly in laboratory research rather than in the clinic [1].
Tocotrienols are a group of naturally occurring compounds that form part of the vitamin E family, alongside the more familiar tocopherols [1]. They occur in four forms, alpha, beta, gamma, and delta, and are found in dietary oils such as palm and rice bran oil. Studied mainly as fat-soluble antioxidants, they have drawn research attention for possible effects on cholesterol, cognition, and cellular health [2][3].
Turkey tail, Trametes versicolor (formerly Coriolus versicolor), is a common polypore bracket fungus found on dead wood worldwide, named for the fan of concentric, multicoloured bands that resemble a wild turkey's tail. It has a long history in East Asian herbal traditions, where it is known in China as yunzhi, and is the source of two well-studied polysaccharide preparations, PSK (Krestin) and PSP. In Japan PSK is approved as an adjunct to conventional cancer treatment, and the mushroom is widely sold elsewhere as an immune-oriented dietary supplement [1].
Vatiquinone (EPI-743) is an orally bioavailable para-benzoquinone derived from alpha-tocotrienol, developed as a mitochondrial-protective agent for inherited mitochondrial disease and other disorders driven by oxidative stress. It is structurally related to coenzyme Q10 and idebenone but acts principally by suppressing ferroptotic lipid peroxidation rather than by shuttling electrons in the respiratory chain. The compound inhibits 15-lipoxygenase and restores the reduced glutathione pool, protecting neurons from iron- and lipid-dependent death. It has been evaluated in numerous clinical trials in mitochondrial epilepsy, Friedreich ataxia, and Leigh syndrome, with mixed but occasionally encouraging results on seizure burden.
Vitamin B2, or riboflavin, is a water-soluble essential vitamin and the precursor of two flavin coenzymes, flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), that carry electrons through the redox reactions of energy metabolism. Because these flavoproteins sit at the center of the mitochondrial electron transport chain and of fatty-acid and amino-acid oxidation, riboflavin is fundamental to how cells turn food into ATP. Its best-supported use beyond simply correcting deficiency is high-dose prophylaxis of migraine, where topping up a rate-limiting mitochondrial cofactor is thought to shore up the brain's energy reserves. Chronic deficiency (ariboflavinosis) causes cracked lips, a sore inflamed tongue, and skin changes, while supplemental doses harmlessly turn the urine bright yellow-green.
Xanthohumol is a prenylated chalcone, a type of flavonoid, and the principal such compound in the female flowers of the hop plant (Humulus lupulus). Because hops are used to brew beer, xanthohumol is a natural constituent of beer, usually at very low concentrations. It has been widely studied in the laboratory for antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities, and it is sold as a dietary supplement rather than an approved medicine.
Zeaxanthin is a yellow-orange xanthophyll carotenoid and one of the most widespread carotenoids in nature. In humans it concentrates with lutein in the macula of the retina to form the macular pigment; at the central fovea, where blue-light exposure and oxidative load are highest, the retina enzymatically converts dietary lutein into a third pigment, meso-zeaxanthin, so that additional protection is generated precisely where it is most needed. Obtained from foods such as corn, peppers, saffron, and goji berries, it is used both as a food coloring and as a dietary supplement studied for eye health, with higher macular pigment density also associated with measures of visual and neural processing.
